Legal Highs

ERADICATING’s Living Labs created a participatory environment, involving experts and practitioners from various professional background, having a two-fold objective: First, the Living Labs were utilised to pilot, validate and evaluate the Footprint Material in ERADICATING, utilising the exchange of views of the multidisciplinary participants. With the same approach, second, the LLs served as a platform for identification of problems and solutions, through sharing of experiences, open discussion on the basis of a specific use case and junction of different perspectives and views. The Digital Child Manual increased the awareness among students about the issue of trafficking in human beings (THB), with a focus on the various forms of exploitation experienced by minors. Living lab used case scenario based on real-life cases of human trafficking and sexual exploitation.

In an era where new technologies are dominant and prominent in our daily lives, artificial intelligence (AI) seems to bring unlimited potential in its use to facilitate and optimize tasks that were previously performed by human activity. However, this rapid invasion of a tool whose capabilities and functioning remain uncharted for a large part of users, raises concerns as to the risk of malicious use. Starting from this, as well as the general scientific debate that has been developed on the issue of bias reproduction through AI, this research studies how the criminal phenomenon can be defined and presented by AI. Through a series of strategies for testing the ethics of AI, such as open or closed-ended questions, scenario-based testing and an evaluation of the AI's framework and guidelines, an attempt is made to understand the perceptions that AI reproduces and promotes about the criminal phenomenon. More specifically, this research will examine the characteristics that AI attributes to both crime and the criminal, how these ideas are captured in AI generated images and finally whether the use of AI systems can contribute to improving justice and crime policy. This research seeks to highlight both the opportunities and challenges arising from the use of AI in crime prevention and control policies, but also whether the two largest AI engines (ChatGtp & Deepseek) reproduce stereotypes around crime and criminality.

A pesar de su amplia oferta y disponibilidad a través de internet, muchas de las drogas de abuso emergentes siguen siendo desconocidas para un gran número de médicos y profesionales sanitarios. Las alternativas herbales a la marihuana (también conocidas como marihuana sintética), tales como el K2 o el spice, son un grupo de hierbas que contienen una mezcla de materia vegetal además de cannabinoides de origen sintético. El Kratom, es un producto vegetal derivado de Mitragyna speciosa Korth que tiene efectos similares a los de los opioides, y que se emplea para el tratamiento del dolor crónico y el alivio de los síntomas de retirada de los opiáceos. La Salvia divinorum es un alucinógeno con una farmacología muy singular que tiene cierto potencial terapéutico, pero que ha sido prohibido en muchos estados debido a las preocupaciones con respecto a sus efectos adversos de tipo psiquiátrico. La Metoxetamina se ha convertido recientemente en la "ketamina legal" disponible a través de internet. Además, los derivados de la piperazina, una clase de compuestos similares a la anfetamina que incluyen la BZP y TMFPP, han aparecido como una versión legal del "éxtasis". Todos estos compuestos psicoactivos son percibidos como drogas seguras por los usuarios y están disponibles en internet a un golpe de ratón. Desafortunadamente, estas drogas tienen efectos indeseables dependiendo de la dosis y de la mezcla de drogas y oscilan de efectos mínimos a efectos serios sobre la salud. Este artículo revisa la farmacología, los efectos clínicos, la toxicidad y el manejo de su intoxicación para que los profesionales de la salud conozcan todas estas drogas emergentes de origen sintético. Marihuana sintética, kratom, salvia divinorum, metoxetamina, derivados de la piperazina.

Despite its wide range and availability over the Internet, many emerging abuse drugs remain unknown to many doctors and health professionals. Herbal marijuana alternatives (also known as synthetic marijuana), such as K2 or ‘spice’, are a group of herbal mixtures containing vegetable matter in addition to synthetic cannabinoids. Kratom is a plant product derived from Mitragyna speciosa Korth that has similar effects to opioids, and is used for the treatment of chronic pain and alleviating the symptoms of opioid withdrawal. Salvia divinorum is a hallucinogenic drug with a therapeutic potential, but has been banned in many states due to concerns about its psychiatric effects. Methoxetamine has recently become the “legal ketamine” available over the Internet. In addition, piperazine derivatives, a class similar to amphetamine including BZP and TMFPP compounds have emerged as a legal version of “ecstasy” All these psychoactive compounds are perceived as safe drugs for people and are avai...

Background-Disordered neighborhood environments are associated with crime, drug use, and poor health outcomes. However, research utilizing objective instruments to characterize the neighborhood environment is lacking. Objectives: This investigation examines the relationship between objective measures of neighborhood disorder and juvenile drug arrests (JDAs) in an urban locale. Methods-The neighborhood disorder scale was developed using indicators from the Neighborhood Inventory for Environmental Typology (NIfETy) instrument; a valid and reliable tool that assesses physical and social disorder. Data on 3146 JDAs from 2006 were obtained from the police department. Results-Negative binomial regression models revealed a significant association between neighborhood disorder and the count of JDAs in the neighborhood (β == .34, p < .001). The relationship between neighborhood disorder and JDAs remained significant after adjusting for percent African-Americans in the neighborhood (β == .24, p < .001). Conclusions-This preliminary investigation identified a positive and statistically significant relationship between an objective measure of neighborhood disorder and JDAs. Future investigations should examine strategies to reduce drug-related crime by addressing the larger neighborhood and social context in which drug involvement and crime occurs.

menekankan hidup sesuai dengan alam dan akal budi. Dalam Meditations, ia menulis tentang moralitas, etika, dan cara menghadapi tantangan hidup tanpa mengharapkan imbalan. ➢ Prinsip Moral Universal Mengembangkan kebajikan seperti kebijaksanaan, keberanian, dan keadilan adalah inti ajaran Marcus. Hidup selaras dengan hukum alam dianggap kunci ketenangan batin dan kebahagiaan. ➢ Meditasi sebagai Refleksi Meditasi digunakan untuk memperoleh kebijaksanaan dan ketenangan batin, mengendalikan reaksi emosional, dan fokus pada hal-hal yang dapat dikendalikan. Hasil Temuan: ➢ Karya Sastra yang Beragam Voltaire adalah penulis serba bisa yang menghasilkan lebih dari 2.000 buku dan pamflet serta 20.000 surat. Karya-karyanya mencakup berbagai genre, termasuk drama, puisi, novel, esai, dan sejarah. ➢ Advokasi Kebebasan Berbicara dan Beragama Voltaire dikenal sebagai pendukung kuat kebebasan berbicara dan kebebasan beragama. Ia menyerukan pemisahan antara gereja dan negara serta mengadvokasi hak individu untuk berpikir dan berbicara tanpa takut akan penindasan. ➢ Kritik terhadap Dogma Agama Voltaire secara terbuka mengkritik dogma agama dan praktik intoleransi yang dilakukan oleh lembaga-lembaga keagamaan. ➢ Pengaruh pada Pencerahan Voltaire adalah salah satu tokoh kunci dalam gerakan Pencerahan, mempromosikan nilai-nilai seperti akal, toleransi, dan kemajuan sosial. ➢ Perjuangan Melawan Penindasan Hidup Voltaire dipenuhi dengan konflik dengan otoritas.

The present study was carried out with the support of the European Commission (EC); e.g. for both the Psychonaut Web Mapping System (A/800102; 2006 348) and the ReDNet (EC Executive Agency for Health and Consumers in the framework of the Public Health Programme; 2009 12 26) projects. The views expressed here reflect only the authors' views and not necessarily those of the relevant EC officers. Conflict of interest: No conflicts of interest are declared here which may have influenced the interpretation of present data. psychoactives have recently entered the online market as yet unregulated substances that may substitute for mephedrone. Only international collaborative efforts may be able to tackle the phenomenon of the regular offer of novel psychoactive drugs.

Hemos leído con interés el artículo de Bijlsma et al. recientemente publicado en la Revista Española de Salud Pública, en el que los autores analizan las aplicaciones epidemiológicas del análisis de aguas residuales, entre las que destaca la estimación del consumo de drogas en la población(1). Somos conscientes de que, en referencia a las drogas de abuso, conocer los datos epidemiológicos y clínicos que nos aproximen a la realidad es difícil, puesto que el consumo de drogas es una actividad que, por un lado, se encuentra sancionada legalmente en muchos casos y que, por otro, conlleva con frecuencia una estigmatización social peyorativa. Estas dos circunstancias hacen que la información procedente de la población general y de los consumidores activos sea difícil de obtener directamente, además de su discutible fiabilidad. Esto conduce a la necesidad de acceder a datos indirectos a través de diversas fuentes, habitualmente de forma segmentada, con los cuales poder inferir el cuadro gl...

An index of fatal toxicity for new psychoactive substances has been developed based solely on information provided on death certificates. An updated index of fatal toxicity (T), as first described in 2010, was calculated based on the ratio of deaths to prevalence and seizures for the original five substances (amphetamine, cannabis, cocaine/crack, heroin and 3,4-methylenedioxymethylamphetamine). These correlated well with the 2010 index. Deaths were then examined for cases both where the substance was and was not found in association with other substances. This ratio (sole to all mentions; S/A) was then calculated for deaths in the period 1993 to 2016. This new measure of fatal toxicity, expressed by S/A, was well-correlated with the index L (T) of the original reference compounds. The calculation of S/A was then extended to a group of new psychoactive substances where insufficient prevalence or seizure data were available to directly determine a value of T by interpolation of a grap...

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to determine pharmacists’ knowledge of legal highs (novel psychoactive substances (NPS)). Design/methodology/approach – A questionnaire was handed out at two London pharmacist continuing education events in mid-2014. These events update pharmacists about developments of interest/relevance to the profession and to improve their practice. A total of 54 forms were returned; a response rate of 26 percent. Findings – Most pharmacists had poor knowledge of NPS and many considered that NPS were not important to their work, with few having had to advise customers in this area. Despite this, the majority thought that they had insufficient information about NPS. There was a negative correlation between the age of the pharmacist and knowledge of NPS. Research limitations/implications – The sample is a self-selected one drawn from registered pharmacists working in community pharmacies in northwest London, and thus does not include hospital pharmacies. Self...

ObjectivesThe recent emergence of new psychoactive compounds (novel psychoactive substances (NPS)) has raised prominent challenges in the fields of drug policy, substance use research, public health and service provision. The Recreational Drugs European Network project, funded by the European Commission, was implemented to improve the information stream to young people and professionals about effects/risks of NPS by identifying online products and disseminating relevant information through technological tools.MethodsRegular multilingual qualitative assessments of websites, drugs fora and other online resources were carried out using the Google search engine in eight languages from collaborating countries. These included the following: the UK, Norway, Belgium, Germany, Hungary, Poland, Italy and Spain. Products were tested and prevention messages were developed and disseminated via technological tools such as interactive websites, SMS alert, social networking (Facebook, Twitter), Mul...

Thirteen "legal highs" were purchased in different "smart shops" in the area of Lisbon, Portugal, during the month of February 2013. The samples were analysed by a battery of analytical methods including Fourier transform infra-red (FTIR), gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (GC-MS), proton nuclear magnetic resonance (1 H-NMR) and wavelength dispersive X-ray fluorescence (WD-XRF). Active ingredients were found either as single component or in mixtures in the different products. The cathinone derivative methedrone was present in three products; it is suspected to have a particular high toxicity and narrow therapeutic window linked with the methoxy group. A total of seven compounds were identified: 4-Fluoromethcathinone, ethcathinone, buphedrone, methedrone, pentedrone, 3,4-A c c e p t e d M a n u s c r i p t 2 Dimethylmethcathinone and 4-Methylethcathinone. Analytical profiles of all the samples were obtained and compared. Elemental composition of the products was obtained by XRF analysis. The inorganic profiles obtained contain useful information and can be used to distinguish and classify samples according to their origin.

Background: Despite solutions presented by the European Union and national regulations introduced by many countries, the problem of mephedrone (4-MMC) is growing. Objectives: The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of regular mephedrone intake with other psychoactive substances on the clinical picture of patients, including self-harms and suicide attempts. Methods: The study involved a group of 601 patients addicted to mephedrone who were admitted to a psychiatric hospital between 2010 and 2018 due to regular mephedrone intake. Results: There was a statistically significant relationship between sleep disorders and mephedrone combined with alcohol (p < .05) or cannabinols (p < .05). However, the highest number of statistically significant correlations was reported when mephedrone was combined with opioids. There was a growing year-onyear percentage of people who attempted suicide because of regular mephedrone intake (p < .001). The more psychoactive substances were combined with mephedrone, the greater the risk of attempted suicide (p < .01). 20% of the examined group were hospitalized several times. Among those hospitalized several times, significantly more people took more than one additional psychoactive substance (p < .01). Conclusions: The more psychoactive substances combined with mephedrone, the more clinical symptoms are associated with it.

Background: In recent years, an increase in the frequency of hospitalizations of patients taking newer and newer psychoactive substances has been observed around the world. Each year, authors publish case reports of patients who consumed previously unknown NPS. Most publications of this type concern the period between 2014 and 2016. However, no publication systematically reviews the pharmacotherapy used in these cases. This study aims to review the case reports of patients taking NPS published between 2010 and 2019, as well as analyzing the pharmacotherapy used.Methods: We searched the Thomson (Web of Knowledge), PubMed/Medline, Science Direct, Scopus and Google Scholar databases. The search was performed using all possible combinations of the term “case report” describing the use of NPS, also referred to as designer medications, internet medications, research chemicals and herbal highs.Results: We analyzed 51 case reports on the intake of various types of NPS. Most of them (p &lt; ...

Background: Despite solutions presented by the European Union and national regulations introduced by many countries, the problem of mephedrone (4-MMC) is growing. Objectives: The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of regular mephedrone intake with other psychoactive substances on the clinical picture of patients, including self-harms and suicide attempts. Methods: The study involved a group of 601 patients addicted to mephedrone who were admitted to a psychiatric hospital between 2010 and 2018 due to regular mephedrone intake. Results: There was a statistically significant relationship between sleep disorders and mephedrone combined with alcohol (p < .05) or cannabinols (p < .05). However, the highest number of statistically significant correlations was reported when mephedrone was combined with opioids. There was a growing year-onyear percentage of people who attempted suicide because of regular mephedrone intake (p < .001). The more psychoactive substances were combined with mephedrone, the greater the risk of attempted suicide (p < .01). 20% of the examined group were hospitalized several times. Among those hospitalized several times, significantly more people took more than one additional psychoactive substance (p < .01). Conclusions: The more psychoactive substances combined with mephedrone, the more clinical symptoms are associated with it.

Background and Objectives: Polysubstance use is associated with relapse and poor treatment outcomes among people dependent on heroin. Despite the high prevalence of polysubstance use among patients detoxifying from heroin, little is known about patients' expectations to abstain or use non-opiate substances. The current study examined factors associated with expectations about abstaining from alcohol, cocaine, and benzodiazepines (BZDs) following heroin withdrawal management. Methods: Between May and December of 2015, we surveyed 417 patients (71.9% male, 31.7 [AE8.39] mean years old) initiating shortterm inpatient heroin withdrawal management who reported alcohol, cocaine, or BZD use in the past 30 days. We used logistic regression to evaluate the adjusted associations of background characteristics with expectations about using each substance following discharge. Results: Approximately half of respondents reported past month alcohol (52%), cocaine (47.0%), or BZD (47.0%) use, and 25.9% reported using all three substances. Approximately half of those reporting drinking, 6.6% reporting cocaine use, and 27% of reporting BZD use expected to abstain from using that substance following heroin withdrawal. Prior opioid withdrawal was associated with a lower likelihood of expecting to stop using alcohol and BZDs, and more days of BZD use was associated with a greater likelihood of expecting to abstain from BZDs following discharge. Conclusion: Persons with opioid use disorder often do not expect to stop using other substances following withdrawal management, with very few planning cocaine cessation. Scientific Significance: Inpatient heroin withdrawal programs need to address and educate patients about how polysubstance use complicates recovery from heroin use.

Aims: Gender differences in cannabis use and CUD have been established, yet differences in treatment response are not well understood. Though some evidence suggests women fare worse than men, the mechanisms are unclear. The current study aims to identify factors associated with gender differences in cannabis use outcomes. (1) Examine how motivation to change and self-efficacy impact treatment outcomes, and whether gender moderates these relationships. (2) Explore additional clinical correlates that may account for gender differences in cannabis outcomes. Methods: A secondary data analysis of a 12-week double-blind placebo controlled trial of buspirone treatment for cannabis dependent adults (N = 175) was conducted. Self-report assessments of motivation, self-efficacy, and other clinical correlates were completed at baseline, and cannabis use was measured weekly using self-report and urine toxicology. Primary outcomes included point prevalence abstinence and creatinine adjusted cannabinoid levels. Results: There was a significant interaction between gender and SOCRATES-Taking Steps on abstinence (p = .018). Higher taking steps reduced likelihood of achieving abstinence among women (p = .001); there was no association among men. Subsequently, taking steps was positively associated with self-efficacy (p = .006) and quantity of use (p = .000) among men, and cannabis related problems (p = .04) among women. There was a significant interaction between gender and MJ Ladder-Readiness to Change on creatinine adjusted cannabinoid levels (p = .004). Change readiness was positively associated with cannabinoid levels among women (p = .000), but not men. Conclusions: Readiness to change and initiation of change behavior predicts worse cannabis outcomes in women. Men and women differ in what motivates change behavior. Social desirability, neurobiology, and treatment type may impact these effects. Gender differences in cannabis treatment response must be considered in future studies. Financial support: NIDA: T32DA007288 (PI McGinty) R01DA026782, K24DA038240 (PI McRae-Clark).

ObjectivesThe recent emergence of new psychoactive compounds (novel psychoactive substances (NPS)) has raised prominent challenges in the fields of drug policy, substance use research, public health and service provision. The Recreational Drugs European Network project, funded by the European Commission, was implemented to improve the information stream to young people and professionals about effects/risks of NPS by identifying online products and disseminating relevant information through technological tools.MethodsRegular multilingual qualitative assessments of websites, drugs fora and other online resources were carried out using the Google search engine in eight languages from collaborating countries. These included the following: the UK, Norway, Belgium, Germany, Hungary, Poland, Italy and Spain. Products were tested and prevention messages were developed and disseminated via technological tools such as interactive websites, SMS alert, social networking (Facebook, Twitter), Mul...

Trabalho final de mestrado integrado em Medicina (Medicina Legal), apresentado á Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de CoimbraNovas drogas psicoativas têm entrado no mercado internacional e, mais importante ainda, nacional, nos últimos anos. Apresentando-se inicialmente como substâncias legais, têm como objetivo substituir muitos dos efeitos adquiridos pelas drogas ilegais e, desta forma, contornar a lei. Os casos de emergência, internamento e mesmo morte têm aumentado assustadoramente. O primeiro fenómeno a que se assistiu no nosso país verificou-se na Ilha da Madeira, no ano de 2011, seguindo-se os casos de intoxicação que rapidamente se seguiram em todo o continente, levando a uma verdadeira epidemia. Esta situação séria e difícil de controlar em termos de Saúde Pública, levou à implementação de medidas legais para controlar estas substâncias. Este trabalho procura, assim, proceder a uma revisão da literatura relativamente às novas substâncias psicoativas, dando especial enfoq...

3,4-Methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV), a widely available synthetic cathinone, is a popular substitute for classical controlled drugs of abuse, such as methamphetamine (METH). Although MDPV poses public health risks, its neuropharmacological profile remains poorly explored. This study aimed to provide evidence on that direction. Accordingly, C57BL/6J mice were exposed to a binge MDPV or METH regimen (four intraperitoneal injections every 2 h, 10 mg/kg). Locomotor, exploratory, and emotional behavior, in addition to striatal neurotoxicity and glial signature, were assessed within 18–24 h, a known time-window encompassing classical amphetamine dopaminergic neurotoxicity. MDPV resulted in unchanged locomotor activity (open field test) and emotional behavior (elevated plus maze, splash test, tail suspension test). Additionally, striatal TH (METH neurotoxicity hallmark), Iba-1 (microglia), GFAP (astrocyte), RAGE, and TLR2/4/7 (immune modulators) protein densities remained unchanged after...

A sensitive and selective method for detection and quantitation of the enantiomers of 18 synthetic cathinones with tertiary amine structure using HPLC-UV-VIS has been developed. Two chiral columns, Astec Cellulose DMP and Amylose-based Chiralpak ASH , have been examined separately. Mobile phase composed of hexane, isopropanol and triethylamine (99.0:1.0:0.1) was used under an isocratic elution mode. Three of these compounds were separated simultaneously after being spiked into urine and plasma samples. 2,3-Methylenedioxy pyrovalerone was used as an internal standard for the purpose of quantitation. The analytical method has been validated in terms of linearity, limits of detection (LOD), limits of quantitation (LOQ), recoveries and reproducibilities in urine and plasma matrices. The calibration curves exhibited correlation coefficients better than 0.99. It was found that the LODs of these cathinone derivatives in urine were in the range of 1.00-1.47 ppm; while in plasma, the LODs were in the range of 0.14-0.67 ppm. The LOQs in urine were in the range of 3.03-4.46 ppm and in plasma they were in the range of 0.42-2.04 ppm. The method recoveries in terms of percent error averaged 2.4% and 3.2% for the spiked plasma and urine samples, respectively; while interday and intraday reproducibilities reported at three different levels, 5, 100 and 200 ppm, in terms of coefficient of variance were in the range of (0.27-5.39)% in plasma and (0.47-3.12)% in urine which lies in the acceptable range.

KARL BOHRN, clinical psychologist, psychotherapist. President of IREFREA Austria. Head of the scientific branch of the Institute for Social and Health Psychology (ISG). Member of the NGO Committee on Narcotic Drugs at the UN Office in Vienna. Development of a systemic approach of drug prevention in the association RISIKO ("Systemic prevention of addictive behaviour-SPS").

Synthetic cathinones are new designer drugs that possess hallucinogenic and psychostimulant properties, and are designed to mimic the effects of illegal substances such as cocaine, amphetamines, and 3.4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (ecstasy) and to produce rewarding effects, circumventing existing laws and penalties. Synthetic cathinones, also referred to as 'bath salts', have become popular particularly among young people since the mid-2000s. Similar to other psychomotor stimulants, synthetic cathinones have the potential to increase monoamine concentration in the synaptic cleft by targeting the plasma membrane transporters of dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin. Because of their structural similarities to amphetamines, it has been suggested that synthetic cathinones may have a neurotoxicity profile similar to that of their amphetamine congeners. Therefore, it has been hypothesized that synthetic cathinones may induce neurotoxicity on monoamine nerve endings in the striatum, hippocampus, and cortex. To date, with regard to synthetic cathinone neurotoxicity, parameters such as monoamine depletion, biosynthetic enzyme inhibition, cytotoxicity, generation of reactive oxygen species, pro-oxidation status, and the ability to induce neuroinflammation were investigated in both in vitro and in vivo experimental studies. Compared with amphetamines, synthetic cathinones appear to have more moderate effects than their amphetamine congeners in terms of neurotoxic effects. However, many synthetic cathinone users take these substances simultaneously with other substances such as benzodiazepines, amphetamines, ecstasy, tetrahydrocannabinol, and ethanol and this abuse can modify their neurotoxic effects. Hence, it is important to understand the underlying mechanism of early neurotoxic effects in case of polysubstance use. In this review, we aimed to present up-to-date information on the abuse potential of synthetic cathinones, their legal status, mechanism of action, and particularly their neurotoxic effects.

3,4-Methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV), a widely available synthetic cathinone, is a popular substitute for classical controlled drugs of abuse, such as methamphetamine (METH). Although MDPV poses public health risks, its neuropharmacological profile remains poorly explored. This study aimed to provide evidence on that direction. Accordingly, C57BL/6J mice were exposed to a binge MDPV or METH regimen (four intraperitoneal injections every 2 h, 10 mg/kg). Locomotor, exploratory, and emotional behavior, in addition to striatal neurotoxicity and glial signature, were assessed within 18–24 h, a known time-window encompassing classical amphetamine dopaminergic neurotoxicity. MDPV resulted in unchanged locomotor activity (open field test) and emotional behavior (elevated plus maze, splash test, tail suspension test). Additionally, striatal TH (METH neurotoxicity hallmark), Iba-1 (microglia), GFAP (astrocyte), RAGE, and TLR2/4/7 (immune modulators) protein densities remained unchanged after...

Background: The relationship between cannabis and violence remains unclear, especially amid those with severe mental illnesses (SMI). The objective of this meta-analysis was to investigate the cannabis-violence association in a population of individuals with a SMI. Method: A systematic search of literature using PubMed, PsychINFO, Web of Science and Google scholar was performed (any time-August 2018). All peer-reviewed publications assessing both cannabis use and the perpetration of violence in an SMI sample were included. Data on several key study characteristics such as the proportion of SMI in the sample as well as the number of cannabis users and violent participants were extracted. Odds ratios (OR) were likewise extracted and aggregated with random-effects models. Results: Of the potential 2449 articles that were screened for eligibility, 12 studies were analyzed using a random-effect meta-analysis. Results showed a moderate association between cannabis use and violence (OR = 3.02, CI = 2.01-4.54, p = 0.0001). The association was significantly higher when comparing cannabis misuse (OR = 5.8, CI = 3.27-10.28, p = 0.0001) to cannabis use (OR = 2.04, CI = 1.36-3.05, p = 0.001). Conclusion: These findings are clinically relevant for violence prevention/management and highlight the necessity of further investigations with methodologically-sound studies. Thus, longitudinal studies adjusting for important confounding factors (i.e., psychopathic traits and stimulant use) are warranted.

Salvia divinorum (Lamiaceae) is a herb native to Mexico where is used by Mazatec shamans for spiritual and divination purposes. S. divinorum products are easily available to consumers and are used worldwide as legal highs because of the hallucinogenic effects caused mainly by salvinorin A. Highly popular videos and websites in the internet depicting the use of S. divinorum products have contributed to an increase in their consumption. Recent reports have highlighted the potential of these products to induce psychosis in consumers. In Mexico, dried leaf extracts of S. divinorum are sold in different strengths, claiming to correlate with increasing amounts of salvinorin A. In order to determine the variability of salvinorin A content between brands and to investigate possible correlation between brand strengths, this study sought to quantify salvinorin A in commercial products available in Mexico using an HPLC method. The HPLC analytical method showed a correlation coefficient R 2 >0.99, with LOD of 0.44 g/mL and LOQ of 1.34 g/mL. The retention time for salvinorin A was 23.09 ± 0.95 min and the measured concentrations ranged between 8.32 ± 0.65 to 56.52 ± 3.77 mg/g dried leaf. The results for brand c did not show an agreement between the declared and the calculated amount of salvinorin A. Additionally, the emergence in Mexico of high strength salvia products (100x), the lack of regulation and the observed variability of salvinorin A content

Background: The relationship between cannabis and violence remains unclear, especially amid those with severe mental illnesses (SMI). The objective of this meta-analysis was to investigate the cannabis-violence association in a population of individuals with a SMI. Method: A systematic search of literature using PubMed, PsychINFO, Web of Science and Google scholar was performed (any time-August 2018). All peer-reviewed publications assessing both cannabis use and the perpetration of violence in an SMI sample were included. Data on several key study characteristics such as the proportion of SMI in the sample as well as the number of cannabis users and violent participants were extracted. Odds ratios (OR) were likewise extracted and aggregated with random-effects models. Results: Of the potential 2449 articles that were screened for eligibility, 12 studies were analyzed using a random-effect meta-analysis. Results showed a moderate association between cannabis use and violence (OR = 3.02, CI = 2.01-4.54, p = 0.0001). The association was significantly higher when comparing cannabis misuse (OR = 5.8, CI = 3.27-10.28, p = 0.0001) to cannabis use (OR = 2.04, CI = 1.36-3.05, p = 0.001). Conclusion: These findings are clinically relevant for violence prevention/management and highlight the necessity of further investigations with methodologically-sound studies. Thus, longitudinal studies adjusting for important confounding factors (i.e., psychopathic traits and stimulant use) are warranted.

Las nuevas sustancias psicoactivas (NSP) son drogas de diseño que se han convertido en un fenómeno del siglo xxi, debido a su novedad, su estado legal ambiguo, la capacidad de evadir las pruebas toxicológicas, la rápida adaptación a las restricciones legales, el marketing global en Internet y el escaso conocimiento público de sus efectos adversos (Madras, 2016).

 The aim of this article is to present the problem of new psy­choactive substances – designer drugs. New drugs are undoubt­edly a social and legal problem. The existing legal regulations lag behind the producers of designer drugs who use all the avail­able methods to bypass the law, which is a kind of race between criminals and the legislator. In the author’s opinion the current methods used by the Polish legislator are not effective. Prohibi­tion policy has led to the emergence of new deadly agents such as designer drugs. When looking for an answer to the question of how to fight new drugs, we need to look at various instruments, not just the criminal law. According to the author the adoption of a liberal strategy involving the legalization of soft drugs is an effective solution. Legal soft drugs would put an end to the prev­alence of high-risk designer drugs.

Mephedrone (4-methyl-meth-cathinone) or 4-MMC and its derivative 3-MMC are analogs of cathinone which act as non-selective substrates for monoamine transporters, facilitating a neurotransmitter release via the reversal of normal transporter fluxes. The pharmacological effects like paranoia, hallucinations, euphoria, aggressiveness, and psychosis make these molecules Babusive designer drugs.^In the present study, conformations of all isomers of 3-and 4-MMC have been studied at the quantum-chemical level. Calculations have been performed using Møller-Plesset second-order (MP2) methods with 6-31G(d, p) basis sets. Present study shows that there are lowenergy conformers for the meta (3-MMC) and para (4-MMC) isomers that are connected by way of low-barrier transition states. Natural bond orbital (NBO) analyses have been also performed to corroborate the results as estimated from the MP2 calculations. The molecular electrostatic potential surface data for each molecule has been calculated, revealing likely that reaction sites and probable metabolism pathway for both derivatives have been proposed. IR spectra for MMC derivatives have been compared with experimental data, and rotational transition states connecting all conformers have been reported.

Background: Novel psychoactive substances (NPS) are continuously and increasingly appearing on the international drug market. Global Internet forums are a publicly available reality where users anonymously discuss and share information about NPS. The aim of this study was to explore and characterize the discussions about NPS on international Internet forums. Methods: The most post-frequent NPS discussions were collected from three "leading edge" international Internet forums. A total of 13,082 posts from 60 threads of discussion were systematically examined and interpreted to reveal recurring topics and patterns. Each thread was coded with emerging topics and supporting quotations from the data set. Eventually, codes with coherent meaning were arranged into 51 broader categories of abstraction, which were combined into four overarching themes. Results: Four themes emerged during the analysis: (1) uncovering the substance facts, (2) dosage and administration, (3) subjectively experienced effects, and (4) support and safety. The first theme dealt primarily with substance identification, pharmacology, and assessed not only purity but also legal status and acquisition. The second theme focused on administration techniques, dose recommendations, technical talk about equipment, and preferred settings for drug use. The third theme involved a multitude of self-reported experiences, in which many different aspects of intoxication were depicted in great detail. The users emphasized both positive and negative experiences. The last theme incorporated the efforts of the communities to prevent and minimize harm by sharing information about potential risks of the harmful effects or contraindications of a substance. Also, online support and guidance were given to intoxicated persons who experienced bad or fearful reactions. Conclusions: The findings showed that the discussions were characterized by a social process in which users supported each other and exchanged an extensive and cumulative amount of knowledge about NPS and how to use them safely. Although this publicly available knowledge could entail an increase in drug use, the main characteristics of the discussions in general were a concern for safety and harm reduction, not for recruiting new users. Drug-related Internet forums could be used as a location for drug prevention, as well as a source of information for further research about NPS.

This study focuses on polydrug use among American college students. Based on a secondary analysis of data originally collected in 1993 from a large representative sample of 4-year college students, (N = 17,592), this analysis compares four subgroups of young adult drug users: exclusive binge drinkers, users of illicit drugs, those with both heavy use of alcohol and illegal drugs (polydrug users), and low-frequency alcohol users. Consistent with the results from clinical studies, collegiate polydrug users were far more likely to engage in risk-taking behaviors-getting into fights, engaging in unprotected sex acts, having more DWI experiences and displaying greater drug use-than any of the other subgroups of respondents. This study also demonstrated the value of therapeutic availability to effectively reduce collegiate substance misuse. For most respondents heavy alcohol use in high school was found as the closest correlate to later collegiate polydrug use. Yet, among the small subset of respondents reporting heavy high school alcohol use and who had experienced treatment for drug problems, their collegiate drug use patterns were far more moderate, in comparison to their non-treated peers. These findings demonstrate the allimportant need to offer a full complement of drug rehabilitation and education services to secondary school populations. Keywords: binge drinking; polydrug use; youth substance use; risk-taking behaviors; treatment health problems, such as the spread of AIDS and other sexually transmitted diseases. Less well known, perhaps, is the extremely heightened risk of these problems among binge drinkers who also use other illegal drugs. Most of this evidence has emerged from studies of treatment populations. Polydrug use has been extensively studied among clinical populations, but has received comparatively scant attention in studies of the public-at-large. The present inquiry is based on a general population sample of American college students. In the current investigation, we employ a slightly different definition of polydrug use than the term utilized in most earlier studies. We define polydrug users as those who engage in binge drinking, and who also use illegal drugs. In most past research, polydrug drug use has been simply defined as the use of a multiplicity of substances. Notwithstanding this difference, we do not anticipate that findings would be much different had a uniform or consistent definition been applied throughout. Previous research has well documented the heightened dysfunctionality among polydrug users, compared to their exclusive drug or alcohol-using counterparts. Polydrug users are more likely to consume greater quantities of drugs; they exhibit more symptoms of psychopathology; they are also more prone to act aggressively, such as to engage in acts of domestic violence, and to engage in other criminal conduct (Brown & Nixon,

Hemos leído con interés el artículo de Bijlsma et al. recientemente publicado en la Revista Española de Salud Pública, en el que los autores analizan las aplicaciones epidemiológicas del análisis de aguas residuales, entre las que destaca la estimación del consumo de drogas en la población(1). Somos conscientes de que, en referencia a las drogas de abuso, conocer los datos epidemiológicos y clínicos que nos aproximen a la realidad es difícil, puesto que el consumo de drogas es una actividad que, por un lado, se encuentra sancionada legalmente en muchos casos y que, por otro, conlleva con frecuencia una estigmatización social peyorativa. Estas dos circunstancias hacen que la información procedente de la población general y de los consumidores activos sea difícil de obtener directamente, además de su discutible fiabilidad. Esto conduce a la necesidad de acceder a datos indirectos a través de diversas fuentes, habitualmente de forma segmentada, con los cuales poder inferir el cuadro gl...

Female sex workers (FSWs) in sub-Saharan Africa are a marginalized group with an increased morbidity risk. Psychoactive substance use among this group is common and increases the risk of adverse health consequences. The type of substance used, extent, and nature of use varies with different settings and regions. We examine the use of specific psychoactive substances among FSWs residing in an urban informal settlement in Nairobi. This cross-sectional study was conducted between April and August 2017. Structured questionnaires were administered in face-to-face interviews. Descriptive statistics and logistic regression were undertaken to examine prevalence, patterns, and factors associated with use of specific substances. Out of 301 FSWs, 98% reported current psychoactive substance use. The most used substance was alcohol with 95.6% of the study population reporting use in the past year. Of these, 151 (50.2%) met criteria for very high-risk drinkers. Reported current use was 61.5% for cannabis, 47.2% for khat, and 30.9% for tobacco. Factors independently associated with hazardous and harmful alcohol use included earning a higher monthly income (>USD50) and disclosure of sex work to close family and friends. There is an urgent need for preventive and curative interventions to address the high prevalence of substance use among FSW residing in high-risk urban informal settlements in Kenya.

The rise in popularity of substituted methcathinones (aka &quot;bath salts&quot;) has increased the focus on their neurotoxic effects. Two commonly abused methcathinones, 3,4-methylenedioxymethcathinone (methylone, MDMC) and 3,4-methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV), are often concomitantly ingested with the illicit drug 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA). To examine potential neurotoxic effects of these drug combinations, C57BL/6J mice were administered 4 i.p. injection of the drugs, at 2h intervals, either singularly: MDMA 15 or 30mg/kg, methylone 20mg/kg, MDPV 1mg/kg; or in combination: methylone/MDMA 20/15mg/kg, MDPV/MDMA 1/15mg/kg. Drug effects on thermoregulation were characterized and striatal tissue analyzed after 2 or 7days for dopamine (DA) and tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) levels, as well as glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) expression. Two days following drug administration, DA and TH were decreased only in the MDMA 30mg/kg group, whereas GFAP expression was dose-depe...

Aims-We empirically identified subtypes of inner-city users of heroin and cocaine based on type of drug used and route of administration. Method-The sample was recruited from the communities in Baltimore, MD (SHIELD study) and consisted of 1,061 participants who used heroin and or cocaine in the past 6 months on a weekly basis or more. Latent class analysis (LCA) was used to identify subtypes of drug users based on type of drug and route of administration. Logistic regression was used to compare the subtypes on depressive symptoms, injection risk and drug network compositions. Findings-Inner-city drug users were classified into five subtypes: three subtypes of injection drug users (IDUs) [heroin injecting (n=134; 13%), polydrug and polyroute (n=88, 8%), and heroin and cocaine injecting (n=404, 38%)], and two subtypes with low proportions of IDUs (LIDUs) [heroin snorting (n=275, 26%) and crack smoking (n=160; 14%)]. The polydrug and polyroute subtype had the highest depressive symptoms risk among all subtypes. Injection risk was lowest in the heroin injecting subtype and significantly differed from heroin and cocaine injecting subtype. The IDU subtypes also varied in the drug network compositions. The LIDU subtypes had similar depressive symptoms risk but vastly differed in the drug network compositions. Conclusions-Subgroups of inner-city cocaine and heroin users based on type and route of administration differed in their depressive symptoms, injection risk and drug network

El cannabis es la tercera droga más consumida a nivel mundial, tras el alcohol y el tabaco. En el entorno actual, con presiones para su legalización, se realizó una revisión narrativa en base a la literatura reciente, para actualizar las evidencias sobre los efectos de su consumo con fines recreativos. Se seleccionaron 19 artículos sobre consecuencias a nivel orgánico y 6 sobre acciones nocivas en la esfera psiquiátrica. A nivel orgánico, existe asociación entre el consumo de cannabis y patología cardiovascular (IAM, ACV, arritmias y con muerte súbita); a nivel respiratorio, hay asociación con bronquitis crónica y con la alteración de los volúmenes pulmonares. Se ha visto riesgo oncológico con el cáncer testicular no seminoma y más probabilidad de desarrollar cáncer primario de orofaringe. En el embarazo, hay asociación con el riesgo de bajo peso al nacer y aumento de ingresos en UCI de los neonatos. A nivel cognitivo, se han demostrado deficiencias en la memoria, atención y procesa...

Background: 3,4-methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV) toxicity includes intense neurological and cardiovascular events. We examined MDPV-induced cardiovascular, temperature, and locomotor effects following escalating and repeated MDPV administration in adult male and female Sprague-Dawley rats and compared these effects to cocaine in male rats. Methods: Telemetry devices were surgically implanted to allow continuous measurement of cardiovascular, temperature, and locomotor activity over a 22 h period after dosing. Rats were administered increasing intraperitoneal (IP) MDPV doses (1-5.6 mg/kg) every other day, followed two days later by a binge regimen of four injections of 3 mg/kg MDPV at 2 h intervals. MDPV serum concentrations were measured by LC-MS/MS. Cocaine (3-30 mg/kg) and four injections of 30 mg/kg IP were administered to male rats for comparison with male MDPV data. Results: The duration of MDPV cardiovascular effects was significantly greater (p<0.05) in male rats than female rats at 3-5.6 mg/kg. The ED50 for MDPV-induced locomotor was significantly lower in males (2.4 ± 0.3) than females (3.4 ± 0.2). Males showed significantly greater variability in MDPV serum concentrations than females after binge dosing. MDPV produced five-fold more potent cardiovascular effects than cocaine in male rats. MDPV did not alter thermoregulation in either sex, but cocaine binge administration decreased temperature. Conclusion: Effects of MDPV on temperature were not significantly different between sexes. MDPV-induced cardiovascular and locomotor effects in males lasted significantly longer and were more potent than in females. These differences appeared to be related to pharmacokinetic factors leading to greater variance in MDPV serum concentrations in males.

The market for new psychoactive substances has increased markedly in recent years and there is now a steady stream of compounds appearing every year. Benzodiazepines consist of only a fraction of the total number of these compounds but their use and misuse has rapidly increased. Some of these benzodiazepines have only been patented, some of them have not been previously synthesised and the majority have never undergone clinical trials or tests. Despite their structural and chemical similarity, large differences exist between the benzodiazepines in their pharmacokinetic parameters and metabolic pathways and so they are not easily comparable. As benzodiazepines have been clinically used since the 1960s many analytical methods exist to quantify them in a variety of biological matrices and it is expected that these methods would also be suitable for the detection of benzodiazepines that are new psychoactive substances. Illicitly obtained benzodiazepines have been found to contain a wide...

Alcohol use is prevalent among populations of persons that use illicit drugs. Problematic alcohol use among persons that use heroin and cocaine has been associated with poor treatment adherence, abstinence maintenance, and mental health concerns. Fully exploring how alcohol use severity interacts with route of administration (ROA) may be of notable importance in development of treatment protocols for persons that use heroin and cocaine. Data from a neurological and socio-behavioral assessment of risk factors among injection and non-injection drug users known as the NEURO-HIV Epidemiologic Study was used in the analyses. Participants (N = 551) included those who reported their level of past 30-day alcohol use and past 6-month heroin and cocaine use. Multiple logistic regression analyses found that both problematic and moderate alcohol use were significantly less likely than abstainers to report injecting heroin and cocaine. Both problematic and moderate alcohol use was significantly ...

Background-Disordered neighborhood environments are associated with crime, drug use, and poor health outcomes. However, research utilizing objective instruments to characterize the neighborhood environment is lacking. Objectives: This investigation examines the relationship between objective measures of neighborhood disorder and juvenile drug arrests (JDAs) in an urban locale. Methods-The neighborhood disorder scale was developed using indicators from the Neighborhood Inventory for Environmental Typology (NIfETy) instrument; a valid and reliable tool that assesses physical and social disorder. Data on 3146 JDAs from 2006 were obtained from the police department. Results-Negative binomial regression models revealed a significant association between neighborhood disorder and the count of JDAs in the neighborhood (β == .34, p < .001). The relationship between neighborhood disorder and JDAs remained significant after adjusting for percent African-Americans in the neighborhood (β == .24, p < .001). Conclusions-This preliminary investigation identified a positive and statistically significant relationship between an objective measure of neighborhood disorder and JDAs. Future investigations should examine strategies to reduce drug-related crime by addressing the larger neighborhood and social context in which drug involvement and crime occurs.

Background: Monitoring emerging trends in the increasingly dynamic European drug market is vital; however, information on change at the individual level is scarce. In the current study, we investigated changes in drug use over 12 months in European nightlife attendees. Method: In this longitudinal online survey, changes in substances used, use frequency in continued users, and relative initiation of use at follow-up were assessed for 20 different substances. To take part, participants had to be aged 18–34 years; be from Belgium, Italy, the Netherlands, Sweden, or the UK; and have attended at least 6 electronic music events in the past 12 months at baseline. Of 8,045 volunteers at baseline, 2,897 completed the survey at both time points (36% follow-up rate), in 2017 and 2018. Results: The number of people using ketamine increased by 21% (p &lt; 0.001), and logarithmized frequency of use in those continuing use increased by 15% (p &lt; 0.001; 95% CI: 0.07–0.23). 4-Fluoroamphetamine us...