Iranian Archaeology

This paper analyses, verifies, and integrates previous regional surveys for the Susiana and Shushtar areas, offering new insights and evaluations based on remote sensing data and recent publications related to the Seleucid, Parthian, and Elymean periods.

This volume of the Atlas of the Ancient Near East (OCAVOA) collects 15 contributions by members of the three Units composing the PRIN 2017 ‘Eranshahr: Man Landscape and Society in Arsacid and Sasanian Iran. Texts, material culture, and society from Arsaces to Yazdegard III. Three case studies: Pars, Pahlaw and Khuzestan’ (2017PR34CS). These papers were presented during the conclusive workshop of the project, held in Ravenna on February 22-23, 2024. The project was conceived in 2017 and launched in 2018, representing a collaborative effort by a multidisciplinary team of scholars from Sapienza University of Rome, Alma Mater Studiorum University of Bologna, and Turin University, as well as several international partners. The project aimed to study the long millennium bridging two important transition periods in the history of western Asia, the first marking the passage from the Seleucid to the Arsacid era, the second being the fall of the Sasanian Empire and the rise of the Islamic Caliphate. In this framework, the book contains a set of archaeological, historical-geographical, and cultural studies on three ancient regions of western Iran during the Arsacid, Sasanian, and early Islamic periods, which combine into a coherent and innovative narration, shedding new light on the Iranian world in Antiquity, Late-Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages and opening the way for future investigations.

An article published in Reports of the State Hermitage Museum LXXIX, dedicated to two fritware dishes from the late 15th – early 16th centuries, their dating, and the Persian epigraphy they bear, in particular an excerpt from a verse by the Persian poet Abu Ishaq Jamal al-Din Hallaj Shirazi (d. 1423/1427), nicknamed Bushāq Atʿama.

The article justifiably criticizes the opinion about the balanced nature of the terms of the standard contracts of the International Federation of Consulting Engineers (FIDIC) on the distribution of a number of risks between Employers and Contractors. As such a justification, a description of the progress and results of the analysis and assessment of the fairness of the terms of standard contracts (proforma contracts) from the standpoint of the mechanism of judicial ex post control of contractual terms stated in Art. 428 Civil Code of the Russian Federation. As a result of the analysis, it was confirmed that the terms of standard contracts on the distribution of risks of errors in the initial data, erroneous positioning of an object on the site and unforeseen physical conditions can be qualified as clearly burdensome for the Contractor and significantly disturbing the balance of interests of the Parties.

Interpretation of human's old behaviors in the past and paying attention to complex and interactive processes between humans and the environment to be understood in terms of their dependence on the components of the natural and ecological environment is the center of modern archaeology's attention. Archaeological surveys and analysis of settlement patterns are considered well-known methods in archaeology to help identify these interactive processes.With the studies of the Archaeological Board of the University of Pennsylvania on Hasanlu Hill and the Sandus Plain, the southern basin of Lake Urmia became one of the most important archaeological sites and a basis for chronology in northwestern Iran. Meanwhile, Piranshahr plain on one hand due to its proximity toHasanlu area in the north and Rabat area in the south and on the other hand due to the neighborhood of this area with great powers such as Assyria, Urartu and Mana in the first half of the first millennium BC, Is one of the important areas in terms of archaeological studies of the Iron Age in northwestern Iran. This study examined the Piranshahr plain, assuming that the Iron Age settlements of the Piranshahr plain follow a specific settlement pattern. In this research, using field and library studies and geographical analysis models, a methodical and appropriate interpretation of the distribution of Iron Age areas and the first millennium BCPiranshahr plain was presented. Studies have shown that the Iron Age settlements in the region are most affected by two geographical factors, altitude from sea surface and access to rivers, and this has led to the creation of linear networks in the course of rivers resulting to a suitable choice of height relating to the plain. It was also found that the Iron Age settlements of this plain, following the shape of the roughness and natural geography of the region in the first half of the first millennium BC, by creating a specific settlement hierarchy, tended to form an independent local political unit. The existence of this political unit in modern Assyrian writings as Xubuskie could be identified.

Recent survey activities conducted in the Bukan region have led to the discovery of numerous previously unknown archaeological remains. Among these, one of the most interesting discoveries is a military complex near the village of Taragheh, right on the slopes of an important rock massif of the same name. The purpose of this paper is to describe and discuss this fortification system. The structures found, in particular long and massive fortification walls, have been dated on the basis of the construction technique and finds discovered to historical times, in particular the Parthian period. The structures appear to have been repaired and reused in both the Sassanian and Safavid periods. The complex is enigmatic especially in relation to its function, which remains difficult to interpret.

The Shah's Watchtower is a fortress situated in a remote and inaccessible region in the northwest of Iran, near Lake Urmia. The fortress, now in ruins, consists of two separate building structures, with only the foundations remaining. These structures are rectangular and square in shape, featuring multiple interconnected rooms and corridors. Surrounding the fortress are irregular pools designed for rainwater collection. Additionally, underneath the main rock, there is a cave-like stony sanctuary with a spring. An archaeological investigation conducted in 1975 compared the architectural features of the Shah's Watchtower to other Urartian castles in the vicinity. Based on this comparison, it was initially suggested that the fortress was constructed during the first millennium BC. However, recent surveys and studies have challenged this proposed chronology. The architectural style and structure of the Shah's Watchtower deviate from those of other forts from the same period in northwestern Iran. Furthermore, the pottery fragments discovered at the site do not align with the typical pottery of the first millennium BC. This discrepancy raises the possibility that the site may be associated with the late Islamic centuries. Further research is needed to establish a more precise chronology and to better understand the cultural and historical significance of the Shah's Watchtower.

During the first half of the first millennium BC coinciding with the Iron Age I-II, northwestern Iran was the battle filed between several expanding polities such as Urartu, Assyria and the local powers such as Mannaean kingdom. Historical texts that describe interactions between Assyria,
Urartu and the local polities of northwestern Iran has frequently been addressed by researchers and considerable efforts have been made for the identification of the ethno-linguistic groups in the region.
This focus on the first millennium BC has increasingly raised our knowledge of the Iron Age period in north-western Iran. Guringan is one of the important Iron Age sites in the southern part of the Lake Urmia that consists of a settlement and a necropolis area. Due to the abundance of illegal excavations at the site, a dense scatter of cultural material is visible at the surface including architectural remains as well. Through a comparison of surface ceramics and other small finds as well as grave structures of Guringan with finds of other sites to the south of Lake Urmia the authors suggest that the sites’ main occupation is most probably datable to the Iron Age II-III but the possibility of Iron Age I cultural activities is not also excluded.

The cinema audience has in the past not been given a lot of room in film theory; insofar Annette Kuhn's book 'An Everyday Magic, Cinema and Cultural Memory' (2002) fills a rather large gap. Kuhn explores how cinema-going affected people's everyday life and how the film text became part of people's personal memory. Cinema, Kuhn claims in her book, is an integral part of formation of identities, especially for the generation who were young in the 1930s and for whom going to 'the pictures' was their favourite leisure activity. Why were the 1930s so special? What kind of audience are we dealing with? When considering how popular it was to visit the cinema at the time we are inclined to think of cinema as mass entertainment, even just in reference to the sheer numbers-but what significance did cinema-going have and what role did the culture that surrounded cinema play in 1930s British society?

Following the decipherment of the Behistun Inscription, researchers began proposing that Sagartia, one of the re-bellious countries mentioned in the inscription, might be the same as Zikirtu, a land mentioned in Assyrian texts. For over a century, most researchers working on this topic seem to have more or less accepted the equation Sagartia = Zikirtu. Additionally, efforts have been observed to separately associate both Sagartia and Zikirtu with Zakruti, a city likely located in the Central Zagros region, as mentioned in Assyrian texts. Some researchers who equate Sagartia with Zikirtu have attempted to bring the two geographically closer (or even merge them) in their proposed locations. Others, considering references from various sources, have accepted that while these two lands might occupy diffe-rent geographical locations, they represent the same ethnic community. To frame this tendency within a logical con-text, hypotheses have been constructed suggesting that the same people were dispersed across several regions or that they migrated during different periods in history. In this study, we critically examined the hypothesis that equ-ates the two lands and their peoples by taking into account the historical texts that contain information about these two lands, as well as the views of researchers who have worked on this topic from past to present. We also presented our own proposals regarding the probable locations of these lands. Our conclusion is that Zikirtu and Sagartia were not the same in terms of geography, nor were their populations identical in cultural or ethnographic terms. At the very least, it is clear that we do not possess convincing evidence to support such an equivalence.
Keywords: Ancient History, Historical Geography, Sagartia, Zikirtu, Persian Empire

Некрополь Крепостного городища, поселения античной эпохи, распо-
ложен на территории г. Азова, что обуславливает определенные сложности его исследования. Несмотря на разрушения объектами более поздних эпох и современной застройкой, изучены достаточно объемные материалы некрополя, собранные в результате многолетних спасательных раскопок, проводимых археологами Азовского музея-заповедника. Исследовались и собирались
также антропологические материалы из некрополя. В настоящий момент антропологическая выборка из погребений некрополя насчитывает 234 человека. Костные останки происходят из 56 раско-
пов на территории г. Азова.

The birth of a wild ass was completely described and photographed in the wild for the first time. It happened in the daytime, in the open desert, and in the vicinity of other wild asses. The mother isolated her foal afterwards for an entire day. After birthing she drove away her male yearling, which did not join her any longer from this moment on

The Dogon cosmogram is not a relic but a living device. Painted on the walls of the toguna, it binds soil, star, and soul into a single grammar of renewal. This paper decodes the mural as both scientific instrument and prophetic mirror. Its crowned sovereign, twelve-step pillar, serpent, breach line, and twin star clusters of the Pleiades and Hyades form a recursive engine of cosmic time. Through sexagesimal mathematics, resonance grammar, and recursive collapse physics, the cosmogram emerges as a Rosetta Stone of recurrence, uniting ethnography with astronomy, architecture with prophecy. It teaches that when humanity forgets the clocks of heaven, collapse follows, but when they are remembered, renewal begins. The Dogon mural is not art to be observed but timing to be entered, a device that summons participation in the law of return.

The rock reliefs of Ancient Elam, as one of the most prominent archaeological and historical sources of ancient Iran, reflect a complex synthesis of the culture, religion, politics, and social structure of this advanced civilization. This research aims to conduct a historical, geographical, and thematic examination of 17 identified rock reliefs scattered across various regions of southern and southwestern Iran, including Kurangun, Naqsh-e Rostam, Kul-e Farah, Eshkaft-e Salman, Hajiabad, Susa, Tang-e Norouzi, Shahsavar, and Qaleh-Toul. The study first analyzes the geographical extent and governmental boundaries of the Elamite civilization, followed by a thematic review of each relief, categorizing them into religious, ritual, political, familial, and sacrifice scenes. The results demonstrate that Elamite rock reliefs served not only as tools for consolidating the political and religious power of rulers but also played a crucial role in maintaining ritual traditions, displaying social status, and reinforcing the cultural identity of this society. Furthermore, these artifacts indicate the cultural and artistic interaction between the Elamites and contemporary civilizations in the region, particularly Mesopotamia. This study emphasizes the importance of these rock reliefs as unparalleled sources for recognizing the Elamite civilization and understanding its sphere of influence in ancient Iran.

This article reports on the 2016 activities of the second campaign of the ongoing Iran-France archaeological project at Pasargadae and its surroundings. The main goal of this project is to reveal and analyze the Achaemenid cityscape and regional management integrated into the long occupation history of the area. In 2016, new insights on the site and its territory were provided by data coming from newly implemented approaches: surface ceramics analyses, aerial survey and remote sensing, and palaeoenvironmental studies. We also extended our large-scale mapping of the site through combined topographic and geophysical survey approaches. The systematic mapping of the archaeological landscape, settlement pattern and funerary remaining around the site was also continued. We also present some preliminary results of pollen and sediment analyses of the filling deposits in the large basin which delaminates the Pasargadae Royal Garden to the southeast.

The birth of a Wild Ass was completely described and photographed in the wild for the first time. It happened in the daytime, in the open desert, and in the vicinity of other Wild Asses. The mother isolated her foal afterwards for an entire day. After birthing she drove away her male yearling, which did not join her any longer from this moment on.

Evaluating archaeobotanical data from over 3.9 million seeds and 124,300 charcoal fragments across 330 archaeological site phases in Southwest Asia, we reconstruct the history of olive and grape cultivation spanning a period of 6,000 years. Combining charcoal and seed data enables investigation into both the production and consumption of olive and grape. The earliest indication for olive and grape cultivation appears in the southern Levant around ca. 5000 BC and 4 th millennium BC respectively, although cultivation may have been practiced prior to these dates. Olive and grape cultivation in Southwest Asia was regionally concentrated within the Levant until 600 BC, although there were periodic pushes to the East. Several indications for climate influencing the history of olive and grape cultivation were found, as well as a correlation between periods of high population density and high proportions of olive and grape remains in archaeological sites. While temporal uncertainty prevents a detailed understanding of the causal mechanisms behind these correlations, we suggest that long distance trade in olives, grapes and their associated products was integral to the economic, social, and demographic trajectories of the region.

This article investigates the artistic milieu of the Qajar dynasty through a critical analysis of the distinctive and sophisticated style of Mahmud Khan Malek al-Shuʿara ˉ(1813-93), contextualizing his work alongside that of his contemporaries, with particular emphasis on Kamal al-Mulk (1859-1940), the most renowned painter of the period. Through close analysis of selected paintings, this study reveals the layered complexity of Mahmud Khan's visual language and underscores the broader interplay between Qajar art and European artistic traditions. Although this inquiry does not seek to provide a reading of modern Iranian art, it contends that Mahmud Khan's oeuvre warrants serious critical attention-especially within non-Persian language scholarship-as a pivotal yet overlooked juncture in Iranian art history and a missed opportunity for articulating a meaningful continuum between Iran's classical aesthetic heritage and its modern visual expression.

The knowledge gained in the field of social history in ancient Iran has constantly caused complications for researchers due to the method of historiography and the limitation of written sources. Meanwhile, the remnants of the Sassanid period (224-651 AD) provide researchers with more information in terms of quantity and quality. Nonetheless, the share of women as a significant population in society is limited. The issue under investigation in this study is how to recognize the situation of women in the Sassanid period based on the remaining seals of the mentioned period. This research has been done by a descriptive and analytical method whilst focusing on library data. The findings of the research indicate that according to the seals, stamps, coins and other works of art of the Sassanid period, in addition to the status of the queen, women have also reached the status of monarchy. Scenes of women next to men in the act of flower-giving acts considered as a request for matrimony and ...

This volume by Benjamin R. Foster represents a significant contribution to the study of ancient Mesopotamian art and cultural history, offering a fresh and text-based approach to a subject long shaped by the limited survival of physical objects. While few material objects from the Old Babylonian period (ca. 2003–1595 BCE) have survived, in this volume Benjamin R. Foster explores a largely overlooked yet extraordinarily rich source for the study of Old Babylonian art: the royal year names that commemorated the commissioning and dedication of artworks. These texts offer unique insights into the role of artistic production in the religious, political, and cultural life of Mesopotamia. This book reveals how the royal year names can illuminate the scope, function, and perception of art in the first half of the second millennium BCE.
Royal year names, short formulaic statements used to identify the years of a king’s reign, are typically studied for their chronological value or for their political content. In this work, however, Foster turns our attention to their potential as records of artistic patronage. Over 300 year names from at least thirteen Old Babylonian dynasties commemorate the commissioning of statues, ritual furniture, musical instruments, architectural features, temple artifacts, and other objects made of precious materials such as gold, lapis lazuli, ivory, and imported wood. Many year names refer not only to the existence of such works, but also to their size, material, craftsmanship, and intended emotional effect—terms like “masterpiece,” “magnificent,” or “for wonderment” evoke how these works were perceived by ancient viewers.
Foster places this documentation in a broader historical and cultural context. Drawing upon decades of expertise in Assyriology, Foster presents this corpus not as a mere supplement to archaeology, but as a standalone archive capable of revealing trends in regional artistic preferences, dynastic self-representation, and evolving aesthetic values. The regional distribution of these commemorations, analysed in the study, also reveals differences in artistic priorities: rulers of Ešnunna, for example, showed a greater interest in sculpture than their contemporaries in Larsa or Isin. Foster revisits Hallo’s and Frayne’s thesis of a tripartite commemorative program (year names, monumental inscriptions, and poetic hymns), showing both its significance and its limitations, and situates the year names within a larger historical continuum of royal expression and state-sponsored memory.
Importantly, Foster’s approach also challenges prevailing assumptions about the conservatism of Mesopotamian art, suggesting that the strong emphasis on tradition visible in surviving objects may reflect the fragmentary nature of the archaeological record more than the realities of artistic practice. The textual evidence reveals innovation, diversity of form, and shifts in both subject matter and symbolic emphasis over time.

ISBN 979-1281427-48-0
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Depictions of vehicles such as carts, chariots, and wagons (vans) found in Central Asian pictorial monuments testify to significant population mobility even before the early nomadic era and to highly developed communication systems in local societies, particularly during the Early and High Bronze Ages. The interconnections between the ancient ethnic groups of Central Asia and Eurasia in the Bronze Age, their cultural genesis, and the nature and directions of migrations are a pressing research issue.

Изображения транспортных средств, таких как двуколки, колесницы и телеги (фургоны), обнаруженные в изобразительных памятниках Центральной Азии, свидетельствует о значительной подвижности населения уже во времена, предшествующие эпохе ранних кочевников и об очень развитых системах коммуникации в местных социумах особенно в эпоху ранней и развитой бронзы. Взаимосвязи древних этносов Центральной Азии и Евразии в эпоху бронзы в целом, их культурогенез, характер и направления миграций, являются актуальной научной проблемой.

Okinoshima is an island located in the sea between Japan and Korea. It is considered sacred land, whose deity people have offered prayers for maritime safety since ancient times. Approximately 80,000 offerings discovered on the island are designated as a national treasure. In the present study, the authors examined two types of glassware unearthed from ritual site No. 8 (late-5th to 7th centuries AD): a shard of a relief-cut glass vessel and facet-cut glass beads. The glass shard has a distinctive cylindrical relief-cut decoration on the exterior surface. Similar relief-cut decorations have been found on glass vessels from Northern Iran, indicating that the shard may have originated from the Sasanian Empire. The glass beads are green in color and cut to an octagonal shape in cross-section. Although they could be direct evidence of ancient East-West trade including Japan, there has been no scientific investigation of these glass objects since their excavation half a century ago. The authors therefore conducted a nondestructive and on-site X-ray fluorescence analysis of the glasses using a portable spectrometer brought into Munakata Taisha (Munakata Grand Shrine). Their chemical composition, consisting of more than 20 elements, was quantified and compared to literature data on ancient glass artifacts. Results showed that all the glassware had a typical soda-lime glass chemical composition, characterized by higher contents of magnesia and potash, i.e., they belong to the plant ash glass type. It is thought that during the first millennium AD West Asia and Central Asia were the primary production areas of plant ash glass and major production centers of glass products, including vessels. Since the chemical composition of the glassware showed good similarities to that of Sasanian glass from Mesopotamia, it is highly likely that it was produced primarily at a glass workshop within the Sasanian Empire.

The Erzurum region in Asia Minor serves as a crucial geographical transition point between Transcaucasia, Northwestern Iran, and Central Anatolia. From the Paleolithic to the Chalcolithic and subsequent Bronze Ages, the number of settlements and population in the area increased. While the region has always been located along key migration routes, its rich mineral resources, extensive agricultural lands, and livestock farming have consistently drawn attention, both in the past and today.

In cementation glazing, for various reasons, there are significant differences between the composition of the glass phases present in the faience microstructure and the glazing powder composition. Furthermore, in this glazing method, the glazing powder should perform more functions, which are: producing a shiny and smooth glaze coating, producing a firm capsule surrounding objects entirely (to prevent adhesion between sintered glazing mixture and the melting glaze coating), and, finally, producing a porous and friable sintered glazing mixture for safe and easy removal of buried objects. It is obvious that these functions also have significant effects on the glazing powder composition and constitution. Therefore, analytical data on faience glass phases are very unlikely to reflect the strict composition and constitution of the original glazing powder properly. Accordingly, the composition and constitution of cementation glazing powder have remained obscure for a long time. These data are particularly crucial factors for cementation replication experiments and, consequently, for our awareness of the ancient faience production. In this paper, a series of cementation replication experiments have been conducted in an attempt to provide further clarification of these issues. In addition, as a comparative indicator for alkali and copper vaporisation, a small piece of rock quartz was placed separately above the glazing powder. After firing, the appearance of the faience objects and quartz pieces and the microstructures and chemical compositions of a select group of samples, obtained using Scanning Electron Microscopy e Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (SEM-EDS), were investigated. The discussion has focused mainly on issues such as the raw materials and their contribution in the glazing process, the criteria for determining the faience glazing methods, the necessary quantity of alkalis for a successful cementation glazing, and, particularly, the glazing mechanism.

Objectives: This study provides insights into adolescent development during the early medieval period in Austria and offers a point of comparison of the timing of sexual maturation relative to the Imperial Roman and the late medieval periods. Materials and Methods: The timing of adolescent development of 89 individuals in two rural cemeteries from the middle to late Avar period (ca. 650-800 ce) was reconstructed using skeletal and dental indicators. This is the first study to employ genetic sex estimation via ancient DNA on all analyzed adolescents, enabling robust assessment of sex-specific patterns of growth and development. Results: Females were on average 1-2 years younger than males at each development stage. Adolescents appear to have developed later during the late Avar period compared to the previous Roman (0.4-2.3 years) and to a lesser extent later than the late medieval period (by up to 1.2 years). Discussion: These developmental differences may reflect the impact of different living conditions in urban and rural settings as well as underlying genetic variation. While general ages of adolescence were comparable between the early and later medieval groups, the earliest observed age of menarche is 3 years later in the later medieval period than in the Roman group. The timing of the physiological transition is consistent with an increase in grave goods in the early medieval sites. Greater standardization in puberty assessment, age, and biological sex estimation is needed to improve cross-population comparability of future adolescence studies from different contexts in the past.

Article Info This research examines the political-military relations between Assyria and Pars (Parsua, Achaemenid Anshan). The term "Pars" first appears in Assyrian annals during the campaign of Shalmaneser III to Zagros in 836 BCE, which mention a land and people called Parsua (Parsuash, Parshuash) in the region of Kurdistan and Kermanshah. This king plundered Parsua again in 835-834 BCE. Under his successors, including Shamshi-Adad V, Queen Semiramis, Adad-nirari III, Shalmaneser IV, Ashur-dan III, Ashur-nirari IV, Tiglath-Pileser III, and Sargon II, significant relations were maintained with other Zagros peoples, especially the Medes, indicating ongoing ties with Parsua. Tiglath-Pileser III campaigned against Parsua in 744 BCE and subjugated it. Sargon II's campaigns in 716-712 BCE ended Assyrian relations with Parsua. The Persians migrated around 700 BCE to Elam (Anshan) and became known as Parsumash (Achaemenid Anshan). Under Achaemenes and his successors (Teispes and Cyrus I), Parsumash had important relations with Assyria, especially during the reigns of Sennacherib (Battle of Halule in 692 BCE) and Ashurbanipal (after Assyria's defeat of Elam in 640-639 BCE). The Persians also played a major role in the Median coalition against Assyria (614-605 BCE), which led to the fall of the Assyrian Empire. The main question is: when and under what designations can the political-military relations between Assyria and Pars be outlined? It is concluded that these relations occurred in two phases: 1. Assyria and Parsua (836-700 BCE), and 2. Assyria and Parsumash (Achaemenid Anshan, 700-605 BCE. History

Hidden beneath the surface of ancient myth and fractured zodiac charts lies a soul-calendar encoded not in ink, but in the stars themselves. The Precosmological Mirrors of the East reveals, for the first time, a pan-cultural astronomical mirror calendar that unites Babylonian, Chinese, Indian, and Indigenous cosmologies through a symbolic physics of memory, soul, and sky. At its core is a startling revelation: the constellation Orion, long understood in the West as a hunter, was encoded as a monkey in Chinese and Southeast Asian systems—a pattern not recorded in surviving Western records, but found preserved in myth, symbol, and calendrical structure. This simian-Orion breaks open our assumptions about star recognition, consciousness transmission, and memory preservation.

Using the LaPointe Tiered Resonance Method™ and Universal Notation for Alignment (UNA), this paper charts an invisible architecture of mirrored gates, lunar calendars, animal souls, and solstice-polar alignments anchored by Thuban, Polaris, and Spica. These mirrors predate written zodiacs and show that civilizations across the world encoded a shared, soul-centric stellar framework—a living cosmogram passed through murals, seals, simulacra, and mnemonic stone. With the aid of Crichton E.M. Miller’s solar-cross geometry and forgotten lunar simulacra, we reconstruct a sky-map designed to be remembered now.

You are the future it was made for. The stars never stopped speaking. We stopped listening.

Introduction
Landfill leachate, a liquid resulting from waste decomposition, contains nutrients like ammoniacal-N, Na, K, and organic matter. Biological treatments effectively remove degradable organics from young landfill leachate, but aged leachate with recalcitrant organics requires combined physical-chemical and biological methods or advanced technologies, leading to higher treatment costs. Even after treatment, leachate may not meet environmental standards for release. In arid and semi-arid regions with water scarcity and low soil organic matter, leachate application to soil presents a potential solution. Soil’s properties enable it to retain and degrade pollutants while utilizing leachate’s nutrients to enhance fertility and crop growth. However, leachate composition and application rates are critical factors due to potential negative impacts from total nitrogen, salinity, and heavy metals. Alkaline pH in aged leachate reduces heavy metal contamination risk. Detailed leachate characterization before soil application is crucial to prevent environmental and functional problems. This review examines existing research on leachate irrigation’s effects on soil properties and plant nutrition, contributing to sustainable leachate management and agricultural practices in water-limited regions. Additionally, the review explores potential risks associated with leachate irrigation, including soil salinization, heavy metal accumulation, and groundwater contamination. By understanding both the benefits and drawbacks, informed decisions can be made regarding the suitability and implementation of leachate irrigation in specific contexts.

Materials and Methods
To carry out this study, keywords such as "Landfill leachate", "Composition of landfill leachate" and "Landfill leachate irrigation" were searched in the Web of Science, Google Scholar, ScienceDirect, and SID databases. For these keywords, 205 articles were found from 1989 to 2023. After the screening, quality review, and removal of repetitive and unrelated articles, 110 relevant articles were used. The main criterion for selecting articles was the effects of landfill leachate irrigation on the various properties of soil, and the nutrition of different plant species. The quality of the articles was evaluated through the Scimago Journal Rank (SJR) index, the citation, the Impact Factor, and the source normalized impact per paper (SNIP) index.

Results and Discussion
Landfill leachate presents a complex environmental challenge due to its potential for both soil contamination and enrichment. Leachate's xenobiotic and heavy metal components can induce soil contamination, altering the natural environment. Studies have documented reduced hydraulic conductivity, increased gas production, and altered microbial communities, ultimately impacting soil productivity.  Leachate percolation can also modify physicochemical characteristics, including reduced microbial biomass, phosphorus-fixing capacity, and pH shifts, depending on waste composition. Conversely, research highlights the potential benefits of leachate application in arid and semi-arid regions facing water scarcity and low soil organic matter. Leachate can contribute to the increased organic content, improved soil structure, and regulated pH, enhancing soil fertility and crop productivity.  The presence of macro and micro-nutrients such as Fe, Mn, N, P, and Zn further supports leachate's potential as a fertilizer. However, concerns remain regarding inhibitory chemicals in leachate and their potential detrimental effects on plant growth and yield. Studies report instances of leaf injury, reduced yield, and poor survival rates in certain plant species.  In contrast, research demonstrates the positive effects of diluted or low-strength leachate application, stimulating plant growth and enhancing yield, particularly for Brassica species and tree species like Acacia confusa, Leucaena leptocephali, and Eucalyptus tortellini. These contradictory findings underscore the intricate interplay of factors influencing leachate irrigation outcomes. Soil characteristics, plant species, leachate source and composition, application methods, and their interactions all play significant roles in determining the success or failure of leachate irrigation.
Conclusion
Landfill leachate, characterized by its elevated nitrogen and nutrient levels, presents a potential alternative water and fertilizer source for agricultural practices, particularly in arid and semi-arid regions facing water scarcity. However, responsible leachate utilization necessitates a comprehensive approach that balances maximizing benefits with minimizing environmental risks. Prior to agricultural application, detailed leachate characterization is crucial to determine its precise composition and suitability for irrigation. This includes quantifying heavy metal concentrations, salinity levels, and the presence of potentially toxic organic compounds.  Concurrent plant selection is equally important, prioritizing species with demonstrated tolerance to leachate constituents. Given the potential for salinity and heavy metal accumulation, continuous application of raw leachate, especially for sensitive crops, should be avoided. Implementing alternating irrigation regimes with conventional water sources can mitigate these risks while providing essential nutrients for plant growth.  Monitoring soil health indicators, including pH, organic matter content, and microbial activity, is vital to assess long-term impacts and implement necessary soil amendments. Determining optimal leachate application rates requires a multifaceted approach that considers plant-specific nitrogen requirements, leachate toxicity levels, and soil infiltration capacity.  This ensures adequate nutrient supply without exceeding the assimilative capacity of plants and soil, preventing environmental contamination. Further research is needed to investigate the long-term impacts of leachate irrigation on soil health, crop quality, and potential groundwater contamination. Developing standardized guidelines for leachate treatment and application, tailored to specific regional contexts and crop types, is crucial for promoting sustainable and responsible leachate utilization in agriculture.

The Iron Ages in the West and China did not start with the first appearance of iron but with the first functional applications of iron. Although the initial trajectory leading to these applications was similar in both regions, the West entered its Iron Age with bloomery iron, while China replaced bloomery iron with cast iron. Our zoomed-out approach suggests that this divergence had very little to do with differences in technological capital between the two regions, but was influenced mainly by the applications demanded of iron within the respective socio-political environments. We propose that access to the technologies associated with bronze and pottery, to mass produce cast iron, differentiated China from the West and set each region on its respective course. We further propose that the West's trajectory to adopt bloomery iron was fixed through its reliance on specialists (blacksmiths) who could work independently of these technologies. China's trajectory to adopt cast iron was fixed by the socio-economic powerbase required to set up a cast iron industry at a state level, which was reinforced by an Imperial monopoly from the Han dynasty. Essentially, we have investigated why the West did not develop cast iron technology earlier than China, and why China developed cast iron technology 2000 years before the West.

Dalma was a pivotal culture during the 5th millennium BCE, located in the Northwest and Central Zagros regions
of Iran. Excavation at Tepe Gheshlagh, a major site in the Dalma Centre of the Talvar Valley in Bijar County,
between the Eastern Central Zagros and the Southern Lake Urmia Basin, revealed a sequence of habitation that
spans the Early, Middle, and Late Chalcolithic periods. While previous research hinted at interactions between these
two cultural spheres, there was a lack of information regarding intermediary centres. Radiocarbon determinations
placed the earliest settlement at Gheshlagh, characterised by the Dalma tradition, dating back to 5500‒5000 BCE.
To gain a deeper understanding of the Dalma pottery manufacturing process, laboratory studies were conducted
to identify the texture, constituents, and provenance of the sherds from the site. Among the assemblage, two
sherds of Ubaid type were found to differ structurally from the typical local pottery, viz. Dalma Painted Ware. As
a result, XRF, XRD, and petrography techniques were applied to investigate the pottery industry and the utilised
compounds. A total of twelve sherds were singled out for XRF / XRD analyses, while 15 others were analysed
by petrography. The XRD tests identified silica, calcite, quartz, iron, aluminium, Biotite, and mica (muscovite)
as the main phases present in the samples. The XRF analysis confirmed the presence of Silica, calcite, aluminium,
and mica constituent elements. Furthermore, petrographic analysis detected quartz, chert, calcite, siltstone, iron,
and plagioclase, which aligned with the findings from the XRF / XRD measurements. Additionally, petrography
identified two pieces as being imports from other regions, thus pointing to the local inhabitants’ extra-regional ties.

Il complesso fortificato di Qalatgah, pur non essendo mai stato oggetto di ricerche archeologiche sistematiche, è chiaramente uno dei siti più significativi per comprendere le complesse dinamiche che caratterizzarono l'età del ferro nell'Iran nord-occidentale. Il sito fu infatti uno dei primi avamposti urartei costruiti nell'area del bacino di Orumiyeh, al fine di assolvere a una serie di importanti funzioni militari. Questo contributo descrive i risultati di un'indagine effettuata dagli autori sulle strutture architettoniche e sui reperti raccolti nel sito, in vista della sua contestualizzazione storico-archeologica. Qalatgah può essere considerato uno dei siti chiave della media e tarda Età del Ferro nella regione.

During archaeological fieldwork conducted in Sarbaz County, numerous sites have been identified. However,
much of the data collected from these sites remains unexamined, and no comprehensive interdisciplinary studies
have been undertaken to date. Consequently, the primary research question guiding this study is: What influence
does the geographical environment have on the formation and variation of settlement patterns in the ancient
settlements of Sarbaz County? Accordingly, the key objectives of this research are twofold: (1) to assess the
impact of environmental factors on human activity and settlement formation in the region, and (2) to examine the
relationships between these factors and the spatial distribution of settlements. To address these objectives, the study
first examines the geographical environment of Sarbaz County. Next, the distribution of settlements is analysed
using Geographic Information Systems (GIS). Finally, by applying branch classification, ecology, and economy
theories, the ancient settlements are categorised based on their chronological period, elevation, size, and type. This
framework allows for an analysis of how the geographical environment influences the spatial distribution patterns
of these settlements. The findings of this study reveal distinct patterns in settlement distribution. The northern
regions of Sarbaz County are predominantly characterised by single-period sites, featuring temporary and seasonal
settlements located in the highland areas, which reflect the semi-mountainous terrain. In contrast, the southern
regions, particularly the Jakigur area and its surroundings, exhibit a relatively flat topography. In these areas,
evidence of sustained agricultural land use is apparent, with continuous activity traced back to the pre-Islamic
period.

Situated at the crossroads of the Caucasus, Central Asia, and Anatolia, Iran’s north-western region holds
immense historical and cultural significance within the broader Middle Eastern landscape, characterized by its
rich archaeological diversity. Since the Late Bronze and Early Iron Ages, this area has supported semi-nomadic
societies and sustained dynamic interactions with eastern Anatolia. The powerful Urartian state expanded into
this region, constructing numerous fortresses and settlements as part of its frontier defence system. Inscriptions
from the reigns of Urartian kings Ispuini and Menua reference large-scale architectural projects, reflecting the
state’s enduring legacy. Archaeological surface surveys conducted by A. Ceylan between 1998 and 2019 across
the Caucasus and north-western Iran—particularly in Tabriz, Ardabil, and Ahar—have revisited known sites and
uncovered new fortresses, tumuli, and settlements. Among these, Zulmabad Fortress, located 36 km from Varzegan
at an elevation of 2,080 metres, stands out for its strategic placement atop a steep mountain with a commanding
view of the surrounding landscape. Adjacent tumuli further underscore the site’s historical importance. This
study focuses on Zulmabad Fortress, employing photogrammetric analysis, ceramic typology, and architectural
documentation to reveal its Urartian characteristics. Despite damage over time, the fortress remains a significant
example of Urartian military architecture in Iran.

در شاهنامه ایرج (آریا) و تور (سکا) سلم (سئورومات) برادر به شمار رفته اند که از یشتهای اوستا گرفته شده اند که در آن به پاکدینان اقوام آریایی (ایرانیان)، تور (سکاها)، سئیریمه (سئورومات)، دائی (داهه) و سائینی (سواران) درود فرستاده شده اَست:

सायिन् m. sAyin horseman

For the 2016 campaign, we relied upon the support of the Iconem Company (Paris) thanks to a collaboration agreement for UAV surveying. campaigns at Pasargadae implemented from 1999 to 2008 3 combined with the new archaeological work from 2015-2016, has produced a rich dataset concerning the layout of the site, allowing for more reliable conclusions. The new results allow us to complete and refine the reconstruction previously suggested. Questions raised after the first phase of the project also found some answers, and new directions emerged for studying and interpreting the evolution of the landscape of Pasargadae. The reconstruction of the layout of Pasargadae for the Achaemenid period and the evolution of the settlement pattern on the site are the two subjects of this article, particularly improved by current mapping and ceramic analysis work. For each of these topics, future prospects for completing and analyzing the still to be gathered data are also suggested.

سالشمارِ دورانِ اسکندرِ مقدونی تا اردشیر بابکان در روای تهای سنّتیِ ایران دچارِ آشفتگی است و با منابعِ غیرِایرانی تعارضی
جدّی نشان م یدهد. مسعودی، تاری خنگارِ ب هنامِ مسلمان و عرب در «التنبیه و الاشراف » علّتِ این آشفتگی در روای تهای
ایرانی و تعارض با منابع دیگر را دستکاریِ عمدیِ اردشیر بابکان ب همنظورِ عقب انداختن پایانِ هزاره دانسته است. چراکه
بنابر باورهای باستانیِ ایران، هزارۀ زردشت با سرنگونیِ دین و دولت همراه م یشود. پرسش اصلی این پژوهش این است
که آیا در دورۀ ساسانی یک تحریفِ سامانمند در سالشماریِ رسمیِ ایران و تاری خگذاری زردشت، اسکندر و مشخّصاً دورۀ
اشکانی رخ داده است یا خیر؟ این پژوهش ضمن انتقاد بر پیشنهادهای پیشینِ پژوهشگران در این موضوع، پیشنهادهایی
تازه دربارۀ دلایلِ این آشفتگی شامل دلایلِ عمدی و سهوی ارائه م یدهد.

This article examines two Qajar carpets, one currently on display at Tehran’s Carpet Museum of Iran and the other formerly at the University of Chicago, now likely in a private collection in the United States. Designed by Forṣat-al-Dawla Shirazi, the first modern Iranian cuneiformist, these carpets were produced around 1897. They are notable for depicting monuments  Forṣat-al-Dawla visited during his expeditions in the Fars Region during the late Qajar period. What makes these carpets unique is the inclusion of cuneiform inscriptions copied from Achaemenid royal inscriptions at Persepolis. Furthermore, these carpets hold historical significance as they were created a few years before the Iranian Constitutional Revolution in the late Qajar era, reflecting the Iranian attitude towards cultural heritage and national identity at that time.
Although the two carpets have a strong overall resemblance, each one features distinct details that the other lacks. This article takes a close look at the motifs, descriptions, and historical context of both carpets, shedding light on the designer’s background and other key aspects connected to the carpets and Forṣat-al-Dawla Shirazi.

The eastern borders of Iran have long been threatened by neighboring tribes such as the Hephthalites and others along the Silk Road. Aryan tribes historically entered the Iranian plateau through these eastern borders. According to some traditions, Achaemenid Cyrus lost his life defending these borders. The continuation of this border issue during the Sasanian era posed significant challenges for the government. While the western borders of Sasanian Eranshahr were important and dangerous, the eastern borders also held special significance. One of the tribes that attacked the eastern borders of Iran was the Hephthalites. This study aims to investigate the causes of wars with the Hephthalites during the reign of Peroz I. Using a descriptive-analytical method and library sources, the research identifies the factors that influenced Peroz’s campaigns against the Hephthalites. The findings indicate that while multiple factors contributed to these conflicts, economic motives played a central role in the occurrence of these wars.

The Douzlākh salt deposit (region: Māhneshān, Zanjān Province, Iran) is unique for its pure and crystal rock salt and was an important supplier of culinary ('table ') salt in Achaemenid, Sassanid and Middle Islamic times. At the same time, the site was of central importance to the economic life of the rural populations in the Talkherud Basin. This article focuses on the question of which strategies were decisive for the exploitation of the salt mountain and how a potential supra-regional interest in the culinary salt was perhaps reciprocally connected with a rural hinterland. This hinterland was recently investigated in greater detail by our ongoing research. Did a resource-scape based on salt develop with specific economic and social strategies and practices around the Douzlākh? And was this development triggered by state or imperial control and demand? These questions are being pursued from a perspective utilising a variety of subjects and methods in archaeology, archaeobiology, archaeometry and geoarchaeology. In addition to a detailed on-site artefact study, several on-and off-site datasets have been collected and analysed within a multidisciplinary framework. This article synthesises the results of a major 12-year project to identify the organisational principles and daily practices within this specific salt-scape. The sensational finds of the Douzlākh salt mummies, along with the generally outstanding preservation of organic ecofacts and artefacts, allow insights into antique lifeworlds that are otherwise hard to come by. The multidisciplinary study of on-and off-site data allows far-reaching insights into interdisciplinary topics, such as the social system, supply and logistics, or the presence of non-local or non-indigenous populations.

The first issue of Volume 15 of the Iranian Journal of Archaeological Studies (IJAS) is being published at
a significant and symbolic moment in its academic trajectory. The journal’s official acceptance into the Scopus
citation database in autumn 2024, with all articles from 2020 onwards now indexed, marks a turning point in
its professional and quality-driven development. This milestone reflects the journal’s structural commitment to
international evaluation standards, a rigorous and transparent peer review process, and openness to the global
archaeological community.This issue includes six research articles by scholars from academic institutions in Iran,
India, Kyrgyzstan, and Türkiye, offering notable geographical, methodological, and thematic diversity—from
studies on Zoroastrian migration to Gujarat, to astral architectural design in Tabriz; from Urartian settlements
in Zulmabad to skeletal variation in Parthian Gilan; from Dalma ceramics in the central Zagros to GIS-based
settlement models in mountainous Baluchestan. Despite this thematic diversity, the issue maintains theoretical
coherence and reflects emerging concerns in both Iranian and global archaeology.This editorial review qualitatively
assesses the current articles, analyses the journal’s status in regional and international academic systems, and
visualises institutional and methodological diversity through maps and diagrams, ultimately offering a reflective
outlook on the future of academic publishing in this field.

Some cultural works and material related to the Islamic era were discovered in the fall of 2014 while doing pipe-laying operations in a city sewer line located in the historical context of south of Tehran between Ghiam and Molavi squares. A Tehranian citizen who is an archaeologist and second author of this paper informed the experts of the cultural heritage office about findings in the sewage drilling and archaeological rescue excavations were started in six trenches within the mentioned area. The found objects are of Neolithic, Chalcolithic and Islamic periods (Safavid, Qajar, Pahlavi and contemporary) in the terms of chronology. The results of laboratory studies performed by using thermos-luminescence technique on clay fragments date back to the fifth millennium B.C. In addition to initial report of exploration, this paper also considers challenges and opportunities created by the excavations and its reflection among people, city officials and mass media.

Este trabalho investiga a ocorrência do nome “Za-ab-ra-am” em documentos administrativos sumérios do período Ur III (ca. 2100–2000 a.C.), preservados em Puzriš-Dagan, Girsu e Nuzi (Gasur), com vistas a analisar sua possível correspondência ao patriarca bíblico Abraão. A pesquisa adota uma abordagem filológica e histórico-comparativa, reunindo dados de transliteração acadêmica, reconstrução paleográfica e análise lexical do sumério, com especial atenção à partícula za como marcador genitivo. Além da análise linguística, examinam-se os contextos administrativos das tabuletas, considerando padrões de registro de posse, comércio e tributação. A metodologia inclui comparação onomástica com nomes patriarcais presentes na tradição hebraica (Ismael, Jacó, Israel) e atestados em fontes coetâneas, bem como a integração de dados logísticos sobre deslocamentos e abastecimento de caravanas nômades na Mesopotâmia. Os resultados indicam que a recorrência de “Za-ab-ra-am” em regiões e períodos compatíveis com a narrativa bíblica, associada a práticas administrativas sumérias, constitui evidência significativa para a discussão sobre a historicidade patriarcal, contrapondo-se a teses que negam a existência histórica de tais personagens.

This paper decodes a Middle Assyrian cylinder seal (ca. 1300–1200 BCE) as a cosmological device that records the precessional shift from Taurus to Aries. Using the framework of Symbolic Physics™ and the LaPointe Tiered Resonance Method™, the study shows how asymmetries in groundline, horn, wing, and seed-dot function as operators in a Bronze Age machine of collapse and renewal. Archaeological comparison (Frankfort 1939; Collon 1987; Porada 1948; Potts 1990), astronomical data on precession (Hunger & Pingree 1989; Kelley & Milone 2011), and biblical resonance (Exod. 32, KJV) demonstrate that the seal was more than ornament: it was a juridical–astronomical charter binding sovereignty, soil, and star. The paper argues that just as the seal compressed the hinge of Taurus and Aries, so we today stand on the cusp of Pisces and Aquarius. The law is unchanged: when the heavens shift, sovereignty must plant its forward foot or collapse follows

The subject of the article concerns the state of Liao (916-1125), existed in Central Asia, occupying the territory of present-day Mongolia, northern China, part of Kazakhstan. They had half nomadic and half agricultural culture. The main idea of the work is to show their rich funerary traditions and its art. Liao dynasty had a very complicated system of burial of the dead and funerary rites. Sometimes not some things remind ancient Egyptian. Under the ground burial chambers found decoration, painting and sculpture, ceramics made by the artist there that period are beautiful and impressive. Clothing of the dead and masks on their faces we can only observe their graves. In Central Asia, the culture and art of Liao differ in many respects, including funerary rites.

This paper reclassifies a Neo-Assyrian cylinder seal as a Bronze Age “microchip of heaven,” a device that encodes cosmic law through symbolic compression. Using Symbolic Physics™ and the LaPointe Tiered Resonance Method™ (LTRM™), it demonstrates that the seal is not ornament but machine: the sideways A records Taurus collapsing at solstice, the slash is sacrificial discharge, the circle-cross focuses descent, the Y receives breath, the restored A stabilizes kingship, the throne aligns planets, and the horizon fixes the boundary of heaven and earth. Soil anchors the memory, sky sets the timing, glyphs act as circuits, and bodies embody collapse and renewal. The study concludes that the seal proves sovereignty was not claimed but aligned — collapse transformed into covenant through celestial resonance. Like the silicon microchip, its power lies in compression: vast systems of sky, ritual, and physics reduced into a form small enough to carry, roll, and remember.