Inorganic Porous Materials

► A kind of Elastic Composite, Reinforced Lightweight Concrete (ECRL.C) with the mentioned specifics is a type of "Resilient Composite Systems (RCS)" in which, contrary to the basic geometrical assumption of the flexure theory in Solid Mechanics, "the strain changes in the beam height during bending" is typically "Nonlinear". (The RCS could be counted as "The Methodically Reinforced Nonlinear Porous Materials", also having the high specific modulus of resilience in flexure.)

♦ Through employing this integrated structure, with significantly high strain capability and modulus of resilience in bending, we can achieve the high bearing capacities in beams with the secure fracture pattern, in less weight.

♦ Due to the system particulars and its behavior in bending, the usual calculation of the necessary equilibrium steel amount to attain the low-steel bending sections with the secure fracture pattern in the beams and its related limitations do not become propounded. Thereby, the strategic deadlock of the high possibility of the brittle fracture pattern in the bending elements made of the usual reinforced lightweight concretes, especially about the low-thickness bending elements as slabs, is unlocked.

♦ This simple, applied technology and the related components and systems can have several applications in the road and building industries. (It can also be used in making the resilient pieces and constructions "with appropriate behavior and high resistance against severe blasts and shocks.)

♦ Regarding the "strategic importance of Lightweight and Integrated Construction in the practical increase of the resistance and safety against earthquake" and considering the appropriate behavior of this "resilient", durable structure against the dynamic loads, shakes, impacts, blasts, and shocks and the possibility of making some lightweight and insulating, non-brittle, reinforced sandwich panels and pieces, this resilient system and its components can especially be useful in the "seismic areas".

♦ This system can also be employed in constructing the vibration and impact absorber bearing pieces & slabs, which can be used in the "Railroad & Subway Structures" too.

♦ Here, the "Resilient Composite Systems (RCS)" and particularly, the ECRLC as a type of the RCS have been concisely presented. [By the way, an instance of the said new structure and its components and the results of some performed experiments (as bending loading and compressive loading of the slabs made of this structure, similar to ASTM E 72 Standard) have been shown in the related pictures & figures.]
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/ ● Key Words: Strength of materials (solid mechanics), Civil (construction), Materials, Earthquake (resistance and safety), Resilient concrete (flexible concrete, bendable concrete, elastic concrete), Composite concrete, Lightweight concrete, Reinforced concrete, Fibered concrete, Lightweight and integrated construction, Rail (railroad, railway), Subway, Road, Bridge, Resilience, Energy absorption, Fracture pattern, Non-linear, Strain changes, Beam, Ductility, Toughness, Insulating (insulation), Thin, Slab, Roof, Ceiling, Wall (partition), Building, Tower, Plan of mixture, Insulating reinforced lightweight pieces, 3d, Sandwich panel, Dry mix, Plaster, Foam, Expanded polystyrene (EPS), Polypropylene, Pozzolan, Porous matrix (Pored matrix), Mesh (lattice), Cement, RCS, ECRLC
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/ ► Contents:
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* ABSTRACT
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* I. INTRODUCTION
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* II. WHAT ARE THE RESILIENT COMPOSITE SYSTEMS
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- A. General Review
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- B. Components
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. - 1) Mesh or Lattice
. - 2) Fibers or Strands
. - 3) "Matrix" With the Suitable Hollow "Pores (Voids)" and/or "Lightweight Aggregates" in its Context
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- C. More Explanations About the RCS
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- D. Why Are These Systems Called "Composite"?
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- E. The General Structural Particulars and Functional Criteria as the Necessary Specifications of the Compound Materials Generally Called "Resilient Composite Systems"
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. - 1) General Structural Criteria
. - 2) Functional Criteria (Required Specifications)
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* III. "ELASTIC COMPOSITE REINFORCED LIGHTWEIGHT CONCRETE (ECRLC)" AS A TYPE OF THE RESILIENT COMPOSITE SYSTEMS (RCS)
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- An Instance of the Lightweight Concrete That Could be Used in Making the ECRLC
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* IV. REVIEW OF SOME EXPERIMENTS, AND MORE DESCRIPTION ABOUT ECRLC
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* V. SUPPLEMENTARY ELEMENTS
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* VI. APPLICATIONS
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* VII. FINAL REVIEW
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* ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
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* REFERENCES 
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***
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/ ● General Review:
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• A kind of "Elastic Composite, Reinforced Lightweight Concrete" with the said specifics is a type of the "Resilient Composite Systems (R.C.S.)" in which, contrary to the basic geometrical assumption of flexure theory in the Solid Mechanics, the strain changes in the beam height during bending is typically "Non-linear".
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• Indeed, the RCS, as the Elastic Composite, Reinforced Lightweight Concrete (ECRLC), do not behave as most of the solid materials in bending.
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• In the "Resilient Composite Systems", distributed pores and/or appropriate lightweight aggregates or beads, accompanied by the reticular structure of the strengthened conjoined matrix, bring about the expedient internal shape changes during bending and continuing the elasticity in bending with the said nonlinearly pattern. This means better distribution of the stresses and strains and better utilizing the potential capacities of the employed reinforcements in bending and tension; whereas, in the usual lightweight concretes for instance, distributed hollow pores (such as the gas bulbs in the cellular concretes) or lightweight aggregates (such as Plastic, Rubber or polystyrene beads or any other kind of lightweight aggregates such as Perlite and Vermiculite) decrease the modulus of resilience in bending and could increase "the possibility of beam fracture of brittle and primary compressive type" in bending (compared to the concrete with higher density) according to the case.
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• In this way, by using the mentioned method to make the said particular composite systems, we could considerably increase the modulus of resilience and bearing capacity in bending "together with" significant decrease of the weight and also the possibility of beam fracture of primary compressive type. Through making these particular integrated functioning systems, for the first time, the said (paradoxical) properties have been concomitantly fulfilled in "one functioning unit" altogether.
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• Respect to the special pattern of the strain changes during bending in the particular Resilient Composite System termed ECRLC, this system as an integrated functioning unit with the reticular arrangement and texture has more strain capability (particularly within the elastic limit), energy absorption and load bearing capacities in bending compared to the usual reinforced concrete beams.
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• Thereby, through employing this applied structure, solving some of the main problems in lightweight concretes application, especially the deadlock of brittle and insecure being of fracture pattern in many of the usual reinforced lightweight concrete structures, is provided; reaching to the high bearing capacities in bending elements (even with low dimensions & weights) is to hand, and getting access to a simple and practical opportunity for "qualitative development of possibilities of using lightweight concretes" (especially with oven-dry densities of < 1350-1400kg/m3 and compressive strengths of <14-17mpa, and even with oven-dry densities of < 800kg/m3) is conceivable.
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• Naturally, by more studies in the field, these structures and their applications in various fields could be developed more.
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/ ► FULL TEXT (Open Access):
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- http://arxiv.org/abs/1510.03933 
( https://arxiv.org/ftp/arxiv/papers/1510/1510.03933.pdf ) ;
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. Kamyar Esmaeili: "Elastic Composite Reinforced Lightweight Concrete as a Type of Resilient Composite Systems";
The Internet Journal of Innovative Technology and Creative Engineering (IJITCE); 2012; 2(8): 1-22.
- http://ia800305.us.archive.org/34/items/IJITCE/vol2no801.pdf [Also archived at: http://www.webcitation.org/6B2pFPpBh ] ;
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- https://www.scribd.com/doc/11530978/Elastic-Composite-Reinforced-Lightweight-Concrete-ECRLC-as-a-type-of-Resilient-Composite-Systems-RCS-http-arxiv-org-abs-1510-03933 ; 
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- https://sites.google.com/site/NEWSTRUCTURE1 ;
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- https://sites.google.com/site/newstructure1/publications-page/ELASTIC%20COMPOSITE%2C%20REINFORCED%20LIGHTWEIGHT%20CONCRETE%20AS%20A%20TYPE%20OF%20RESILIENT%20COMPOSITE%20SYSTEMS.pdf ;
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- http://www.pdf-archive.com/2015/09/22/elasticcomposite-reinforcedlightweightconcreteasatypeofrcs/elasticcomposite-reinforcedlightweightconcreteasatypeofrcs.pdf ;
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- The link to the document in PDF format on this site:
file:///C:/Users/pc5/Downloads/ELASTIC_COMPOSITE_REINFORCED_LIGHTWEIGHT.pdf ;
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- ...

► SUMMARY:

♦ The Resilient Composite Systems (R.C.S.) could be counted as "The Methodically Reinforced Nonlinear Porous Materials", also having the high specific modulus of resilience in flexure. They are the compound materials, with some particular structural properties, in which, contrary to the basic geometrical assumption of the flexure theory in Solid Mechanics, the strain changes in the beam height during bending is typically "Nonlinear". The Resilient Composite Systems are made by expediently creating the disseminated suitable hollow pores and/or by distributing the appropriate lightweight aggregates throughout the methodically reinforced, fibered conjoined matrix so that; "the strain changes in the beam height during bending" is typically "nonlinear". Thereby, by applying the mentioned method to make the said composite systems, "considerably increasing the modulus of resilience and the bearing capacity in bending" together with "the significant decrease of the weight" and "the removal of the beam fracture possibility of primary compressive type" have been feasible. Through making these particular consistently functioning systems, the above-stated paradoxical virtues have been concomitantly fulfilled in "one functioning unit" altogether.

♦ The RCS (with the mentioned general structural properties and specific functional criteria) whose cement materials include the "C-S-H (Calcium Silicate hydrate) crystals" have been termed "Elastic Composite, Reinforced Lightweight Concrete (E.C.R.L.C.)".

♦ The RCS and ECRLC as a kind of RCS could be used in many cases. For instance, "Constructing Lightweightly and Consistently", also with practically utilizing the RCS and ECRLC in particular, can be counted as the pivotal and practical tactic to effectively increase the resistance & safety of the constructions against "earthquake" and lateral forces, in the large extent. For example, using some lightweight and insulating, "non-brittle", reinforced sandwich panels or 3D-panels, "with the high modulus of resilience and appropriate behavior against the bending loads and impacts", for construction could be taken into consideration according to the case... [It is worth remarking that; contrary to the ECRLC, the usual reinforced lightweight concretes, especially in the very low densities, are dramatically brittle; they do not have the appropriate behavior and resistance against the high bending loads and impacts.]
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● "Resilient Composite Systems (RCS)":

♦ "Resilient Composite Systems" (RCS) are the compound materials, having some particular structural properties, in which, contrary to the basic geometrical assumption of the flexure theory in Solid Mechanics, the strain changes in the beam height during bending is typically "Nonlinear". The RCS could be counted as "The Methodically Reinforced Nonlinear Porous Materials", also having the high specific modulus of resilience in flexure. (Elastic Composite, Reinforced Lightweight Concrete; ECRLC is a type of RCS with the mentioned specifics.)

♦ Generally, the Resilient Composite Systems comprise these components as the main, necessary elements:
• 1) Mesh (Lattice);
• 2) Fibers or strands;
• 3) Conjoined matrix, having the disseminated suitable pores and/or the disseminated appropriate lightweight aggregates beads or particles. [Here, the general term of "lightweight aggregate" has a broad meaning, also including the polymeric and non-polymeric beads or particles.]

♦ The Resilient Composite Systems are made by creating the disseminated suitable hollow pores and/or by distributing the appropriate lightweight aggregates throughout the reinforced, fibered conjoined matrix so that; "the strain changes in the beam height during bending" is typically "nonlinear". Thereby, by applying the mentioned method to make the said particular composite systems, "considerably increasing the modulus of resilience and the bearing capacity in bending" together with "the significant decrease of the weight" and "the removal of the beam fracture possibility of primary compressive type" have been feasible. Through making these particular consistently (unitedly, integratedly) functioning systems, the stated paradoxical virtues have been concomitantly fulfilled in one functioning unit altogether.

♦ Generally, in these consistently functioning units, the amount and the use manner of the mentioned components in the organized system are so that; the reciprocal interactions among the components finally lead to the "typically nonlinear strain changes in the beam height during bending" (as the "basic functional character" of these systems with the specific testable criteria and indices) and the functional specifications fulfillment of the system.

♦ In the RCS in general, the main strategy to raise the modulus of resilience in bending is "increasing the strain capability of the system in bending" within the elastic limit.

♦ Here, the main tactic to realize the stated strategy is: "creating the suitable hollow pores and/or using the appropriate lightweight aggregates, all disseminated throughout the methodically reinforced conjoined matrix", to provide the possibility for occurring of the expedient internal deformities in the matrix during the bending course, which could lead to the more appropriate distribution of the stresses and the strains throughout the system and the more strain capability of the beam in flexure. On the other hand, only creating the hollow pores and/or using the lightweight aggregates in the matrix, by itself, not only cannot lead to the mentioned goals but also brings about weakening of the matrix and its fragility. Hence, concomitantly, the matrix should be well supported and strengthened. Here, this essentially ameliorating and strengthening the matrix are performed by giving attention to "the internal consistency of the matrix" and also via "employing the expedient reinforcements in two complementary levels": 1) Using the fibers to the better distribution of the tensile stresses and strains in the matrix, and to increase the matrix endurance and the modulus of resilience in tension and bending; 2) Using the mesh or lattice to better distribution of the tensile stresses and strains in the system, and to increase the system endurance and the modulus of resilience in tension and bending.

♦ In these systems, the presence of the mentioned hollow pores and/or lightweight aggregates disseminated throughout the conjoined matrix (which has been ameliorated through making "an integrated, reticular structure") provides the possibility for occurring of the expedient internal deformities in the matrix during the bending course. By the way, this can lead to the less accumulation of the internal stresses in the certain points of the matrix during bending, the better absorption and control of the stresses, and providing the more strain capability of the beam, especially within the elastic limit.

♦ The occurrence of the remarked internal deformities in the said methodically reinforced matrix during the bending course also means; the occurrence of the deformities in the said hollow pores and/or lightweight aggregates well disseminated throughout the conjoined matrix, in two different forms. Indeed, we have the internal deformities in the fibered lightweight matrix of the system throughout the bending course, in two main different forms, leading to: A) The comparative increase of the thickness (height) of the in-compressing layers (particularly in the upper parts of the beam) and the conversion of some internal compressive stresses to the internal tensile stresses (on the axis perpendicular to the mentioned internal compressive tensions) in the in-compressing layers; B) The comparative decrease of the thickness (height) of the in-tension layers (particularly in the lower parts of the beam) and the conversion of some internal tensile stresses to the internal compressive stresses (on the axis perpendicular to the mentioned internal tensile tensions) in the in-tension layers.

♦ In the under-bending sections of the "Resilient Composite Systems", the deformities occurring in the "conjoined layers perpendicular to the applied load direction" during the bending course are so that; "the initially plane sections perpendicular to the beam axis" typically shift from "the plane status" to "the curve status" during the bending course. Thereby, the basic geometrical assumption of the flexure theory in Solid Mechanics ("linearly" being of the strain changes in the beam height during bending) and the respective trigonometric equations & equalities are mainly overshadowed in these systems.

♦ This way, through occurring of the remarked internal deformities in the strengthened matrix during the flexure course, the stresses are more distributed and absorbed, and the rise rate of the internal stresses in the matrix ... reduces.  ...
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► [sites.google.com/site/newstructure1]

This paper reviews the synthesis and the absorbing properties of the wide variety of porous sorbent materials that have been studied for application in the removal of organics, particularly in the area of oil spill cleanup. The discussion is especially focused on hydrophobic silica aerogels, zeolites, organoclays and natural sorbents many of which have been demonstrated to exhibit (or show potential to exhibit) excellent oil absorption properties. The areas for further development of some of
these materials are identified.

Amorphous manganese oxide and binary copper manganese oxides were synthesized using the redox method, characterized, and tested in the catalytic oxidation of ethylene. The catalytic activity of the synthesized catalysts toward ethylene oxidation was high (100% conversion of 1.0% C2H4 at 200 °C with space velocity of 35 000 mL-1 h-1 gcat-1 source and compared favorably with that of a commercial Hopcalite catalyst. The high catalytic activity was attributed a combination of factors including the poor crystallinity, the high surface areas (≥163 m2 g−1), porosity, presence of Mn4+ species, and compositional homogeneity of the synthesized copper manganese oxides. Incorporation of copper into the amorphous manganese oxide matrix significantly enhanced the catalytic activity of the resultant bimetallic oxides by increasing the reducibility and ease of removal of lattice oxygen species. The synthesized materials were characterized using FE-SEM, HR-TEM, BET, FAAS, XPS, and TPD methods.

Highlights:

Copper manganese oxides are highly active catalysts for ethylene oxidation. High activity attributed to amounts of Mn4+ species, and compositional homogeneity. Incorporation of copper enhances the activity of resultant bimetallic oxides.

Ten montmorillonite-type clay samples from Miles, Queensland, Australia, have been characterised using XRD, ICP–AES and infrared spectroscopy. The Na-exchanged sample, DH-30, was used for pillaring with Al13 by exchange with an Al(NO3)3/NaOH solution with an approximate OH/Al molar ratio of 2.2. The XRD pattern for the expanded smectite provided evidence that the Na/Al13 polymer exchange had occurred. XRD patterns for the raw sample, the Na-exchanged clay and the Al13-exchanged clay resulted in d-spacings of 15.09, 15.73 and 17.42 Å, respectively. Calcination at 600 °C of the Al13-smectite led to a minor decrease in basal spacing to approximately 16.5 Å. The effect of temperature on the Al13-expanded smectite was also apparent when the d-spacing of an air-dried sample (19.44 Å) was compared to that of an oven-dried (60 °C) sample (17.42 Å). This difference was due to the loss of water molecules from the Al13 outer sphere of hydration

This article appeared in a journal published by Elsevier. The attached copy is furnished to the author for internal non-commercial research and education use, including for instruction at the authors institution and sharing with colleagues. Other uses, including reproduction and distribution, or selling or licensing copies, or posting to personal, institutional or third party websites are prohibited. In most cases authors are permitted to post their version of the article (e.g. in Word or Tex form) to their personal website or institutional repository. Authors requiring further information regarding Elsevier's archiving and manuscript policies are encouraged to visit: http://www.elsevier.com/copyright a b s t r a c t Paints are widely used as finishing coats on all kinds of buildings. Aiming at a better understanding of how paints influence salt decay processes, experiments were performed on painted and unpainted specimens: (a) crystallization tests on specimens composed of a plaster on brick substrate; (b) drying experiments on stone specimens, monitored by means of a two-dimensional magnetic resonance imaging technique. The results of these experiments suggest that: (i) paints tend to increase the presence of moisture and salt deposition on or close to the surface of walls; (ii) the salt-accumulation behaviour and related features of different plasters/renders may be differently affected by paint layers.

It has been found that silica chemically modified with dipropyl disulfide groups (DPDSS) quantitatively extracts palladium(II) from solutions in the acidity range from 4 M HCl to pH 4 and gold(III) in the range from 1 M HCl to pH 2 with a partition coefficient at the level of n × 104 cm 3/g. The adsorption of palladium(II) and gold(III) at room temperature is highly selective, whereas non-ferrous and other platinum metals are not adsorbed. Sorption-atomic absorption, sorption-ICP-atomic emission, and sorption-photometric methods for the determination of palladium and gold have been developed using DPDSS. The accuracy of the methods was tested by the analysis of certified reference samples.

Drying of masonry specimens was monitored by means of a two-dimensional (2D) magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) technique. The external surfaces stayed wet for longer if NaCl was present instead of pure water only. This corroborates many practical observations that salts aggravate dampness in masonry. A slower evaporation process and not hygroscopicity was the cause. That suggests that salt-induced dampness may, in general, arise simply from changes in the drying process of masonry materials. That also implies that the height and depth at which crystallization occurs in walls may depend on the relative equilibrium humidity (RHeq) and other properties of salts that influence drying of porous materials. Evaporation rates of free surfaces of pure water and saturated NaCl solution were measured by a gravimetric technique. The results indicate that slow drying of salt-contaminated materials is not due only to the lower RHeq of salt solutions. The effective surface of evaporation is likely to be reduced perhaps due to blocking of pores by salt crystals. Final salt-distribution maps of the specimens show that: (a) salts may affect the inner materials of the masonry, even in evaporation-induced processes that lead crystallization to occur predominantly on the external surface; (b) distinct internal distribution patterns occur if masonry composition varies.

Microporous Na-birnessite-type manganese oxides are synthesized by oxidation of Mn(OH)2 with K2S2O8 in strong alkaline environment. Subsequent ion-exchange reactions in aqueous solutions containing Sr, Ba promote their incorporation into the layered structural frameworks,
which upon further hydration lead to the respective layered Buserites. Chemical composition and surface structure are assessed by X-ray powder diffraction, nitrogen- and argon- sorptiometry. Na-birnessites and Sr-buserites display good crystallinity. Ba-buserites consist mainly of nanocrystals. Their N2 adsorption/desorption isotherms of resemble IV-type isotherms. Integral and differential pore distribution curves obtained by N2-sorptiometry exhibit out-of-layers pores
of 4-5 nm and 10-20 nm. Na-birnessites, Sr- and Ba-buserites possess external B.E.T surfaces of 75.6, 49.2 and 93.6 m2/g respectively. Considerable adsorption volumes of 14, 17 cm3/g for P/P0 = 0.05 for Na-birnessites and Ba-buserites are assessed by Ar-sorptiometry. Differential pore distribution curves confirm inner-layer micropores of 5 to 7 Å with a B.E.T specific area of 76.2 m²/g for Na-birnessites and 51.8 m²/g for Ba-buserites. Na-birnessites and Sr-, Ba-buserites possess enhanced ionic exchanging capacity, acting as a “sink” for heavy metal cations such as Fe2+, Fe3+, Co2+, Ni2+, As3+. The retention of U, Cs and Sr radioisotopes by them unfolds their salient anti-pollution potential for soil and subwater ecosystems.

The structural changes of synthetic beidellite and Al13-pillared analogues during dehydroxylation were studied using infrared emission spectroscopy (IES). The OH-stretching region is characterised by 2 OH-stretching modes around 3605 cm−1 and 3650 cm−1. These bands strongly decrease in intensity upon dehydroxylation of the beidellite up to 700–750°C. The Al13-pillared beidellite shows stronger OH-stretching bands, while the silanol band, originally visible in the beidellite spectra, is absent. The OH-stretching mode of the Al13 is visible around 3450 cm−1 and a very broad band is present around 3200 cm−1 assigned to water molecules in the Al13 pillar. This band quickly disappears upon heating to 300°C while the OH-stretching band at 3450 cm−1 diminishes in intensity. The presence of two different OH-groups in beidellite is also reflected in the OH-bending modes around 880 cm−1 and 916 cm−1 and in the OH-libration modes around 770 cm−1 and 804 cm−1 in the infrared (IR) absorption spectra. These bands show an intensity decrease upon dehydroxylation of the clay. Similar, slightly shifted, bands are observed in the IR emission spectra. Significant differences between the beidellite and its pillared analogue are the splitting of the single band at 814 cm−1 into two bands at 812 cm−1 and 830 cm−1 and the bands associated with Al–OH modes show increased intensities for the pillared beidellite. These results show that upon calcination the pillars dehydroxylate, thereby releasing protons which are able to diffuse through the tetrahedral sheet into the octahedral sheet where they interact with the structural OH-groups and form water. In addition, the formation of Si–OH– groups is observed in the IR emission spectra of the Al13-pillared beidellite indicating that these protons can also interact with Si–O–Al bonds upon calcination and form new Si–OH–Al bonds. A reaction between the Al13 pillar and the protonated Si–OH–Al linkage will yield Altetrahedral–O–Alpillar linkages.

The properties of the enzyme pepsin, relevant to its incorporation inside the channels of mesoporous silica materials in the preparation of bioinorganic hybrids, are highlighted by molecular dynamics simulations of aqueous solutions of the protein under conditions optimal for encapsulation in SBA-15. The protein size, shape, flexibility and surface properties are calculated with the aim of deriving general accessibility/compatibility criteria favouring encapsulation inside mesoporous systems.