Host-Pathogen Interactions

Toll-like receptor 3 (TLR3) initiates antiviral and inflammatory responses exclusively through the adaptor protein TRIF (TIR-domain-containing adapter-inducing interferon-β). In contrast, MyD88 (myeloid differentiation primary response 88), a central adaptor for most other TLRs, is traditionally considered dispensable for TLR3 signaling. Here, we demonstrate that MyD88 directly contributes to TLR3-mediated NF-κB activation and cytokine production in macrophages. Bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDMs) from MyD88 deficient mice exhibited significantly attenuated NF-κB activation in response to the TLR3 agonist polyinosinic-polycytidylic acid (poly(I:C)) compared to wild-type cells, as evidenced by the reduced phosphorylation of NF-κB p65 and IκBα, as well as IκBα degradation. Consistently, pro-inflammatory cytokine production, including IL-6, TNF-α, and IFN-β, was attenuated in MyD88-deficient BMDMs in vitro following stimulation by poly(I:C) or poly(A:U), another TLR3 agonist. Blood concentrations of IL-6, TNF-α, and IFN-β were significantly reduced in both TRIF-deficient mice and MyD88-deficient mice challenged by the i.p. injection of poly(I:C). Mechanistic analyses revealed that MyD88 physically associates with activated TLR3 upon poly(I:C) stimulation, and that TLR3 engagement triggered MyD88 oligomerization, which was absent in TLR3 or TRIF deficient macrophages. Our findings highlight a previously unrecognized dual-adaptor mechanism for TLR3, wherein MyD88 recruitment amplifies NF-κB signaling dynamics by bridging TLR3 to the canonical NF-κB activation cascade and robust cytokine induction. This study expands the paradigm of TLR3 signaling by establishing MyD88 as a direct contributor to TLR3-driven innate immune responses, offering new insight into cross-talk between MyD88-dependent and-independent pathways.

Host physical, chemical, and immune responses constitute well-established defences against bacterial invasion. Recent studies have highlighted the critical role of cellular mechanisms, particularly the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in antibacterial defence. This review focuses on ROS generation by mammalian intestinal epithelial cells (IECs) and investigates whether ROS production is host-driven to eliminate bacteria or manipulated by bacteria to suppress or exploit ROS for enhanced internalisation. We examine the activation mechanisms of the NADPH oxidase (NOX) enzyme complex and the resulting ROS production in IECs, which, unlike professional phagocytes, lack the ability to engulf bacteria. The downstream effects of NOX-mediated ROS signalling are discussed in detail. Additionally, we explore the dynamic interplay between host and pathogen, with particular attention to how bacterial infection may disrupt or hijack host NOX-mediated ROS responses. The review concludes with key experimental considerations and outlines future directions in this evolving field. Overall, we present ROS as a double-edged sword, an essential antimicrobial effector that is also susceptible to bacterial subversion, highlighting its potential as a target in novel antimicrobial strategies.

Plants constantly interact with complex microbial communities that influence their health, productivity, and resilience to biotic and abiotic stress. This Research Topic compiles some recent advances in understanding how beneficial microorganisms (bacteria and fungi)—primarily those associated with seeds, the rhizosphere, and phyllosphere—function as biological barriers against plant pathogens. These pathogens include the soil-borne fungal agents, Magnaporthiopsis maydis, Dematophora necatrix, Sclerotium rolfsii, and the foliar pathogen Magnaporthe oryzae. Also, biocontrol of the arthropod insect pests was reviewed. The collection highlights molecular mechanisms, ecological dynamics, and promising applications of plant-friendly microbes in sustainable agriculture. Here, we summarize the key findings, thematic trends, and future research directions emerging from this collection.

Late wilt disease is a destructive disease of maize crops caused by Cephalosporium maydis. So, field experiments were conducted during the two summer growing seasons, 2020 and 2021, to follow up on the growth of this fungus during plant growth stages by studying the morphological-physiological and anatomical characteristics of infected maize plants. The results showed that disease incidence was increased in the sensitive variety TWC 324 (V2), followed by SC 128 (V3) and SC10 (V1). Also, protein, total phenols, total carbohydrates, total chlorophyll, and enzyme activities such as polyphenol oxidase, peroxidase, and phenylalanine ammonia lyase were increased in the resistant variety SC10 (V1) compared with the sensitive variety TWC 324 (V2). The highest levels of these characters were recorded at 100 days from sowing. Furthermore, the anatomical characteristics of the roots and stems showed that the root and stem diameter, epidermis thickness, cortex thickness, length and width of the vascular bundle, phloem thickness, and xylem vessel diameter were decreased in the sensitive variety TWC 324 (V2) compared with the resistant variety SC10 (V1). Generally, the improvement in physiological and anatomical characteristics of maize variety SC10 (V1) displays the resistance mechanism to Cephalosporium maydis, which causes late wilt disease.

While major progress has been achieved in the experimental techniques used for the detection of protein interactions and in the processing and analysis of the vast amount of data that they generate, we still do not understand why the set of identified interactions remains so highly dependent on the particular detection method. Here we present an overview of the major high-throughput experimental methods used to detect interactions and the datasets produced using these methods over the last 10 years. We discuss the challenges of assessing the quality of these datasets, and examine key factors that likely underlie the persistent poor overlap between the interactions detected by different methods. Lastly, we present a brief overview of the literature-curated protein interaction data stored in public databases, which are often relied upon for independent validation of newly derived interaction networks.

Trichomonas vaginalis, the etiologic agent of the most common non-viral sexually transmitted infection worldwide, colonizes the human urogenital tract where it remains extracellular and adheres to epithelial cells. With an estimated prevalence of 276 million new cases annually, mixed infections with different parasite strains are expected. Although it is considered as obvious that parasites interact with their host to enhance their own survival and transmission, evidence of mixed infection call into question the extent to which unicellular parasites communicate with each other. Here, we demonstrated that differentT. vaginalisstrains are able to communicate through the formation of cytoneme-like membranous cell connections. We showed thatT. vaginalisadherent strains form abundant membrane protrusions and cytonemes formation of an adherent parasite strain (CDC1132) is affected in the presence of a different strain (G3 or B7RC2). Using a cell culture inserts assays, we demonstrated tha...

The biological function(s) of the cpkk1, cpkk2 and cpkk3 genes, encoding the three mitogen-activated protein kinase kinases (MAP2Ks) of Cryphonectria parasitica, the causal agent of chestnut blight, were examined through knockout strains. Cpkk1, the Mkk1 orthologue, acts in a phosphorylation cascade essential for cell integrity; Cpkk2 is the Ste7 orthologue involved in the pheromone response pathway; Cpkk3 is the Pbs2 orthologue, the MAP2K activated during the high-osmolarity response. Our analysis confirmed the role of each MAP2K in its respective signalling cascade with some peculiarities: abnormal hyphae with a reduced number of septa and thinner cell walls were observed in Δcpkk1 mutants, and a strong growth defect on solid media was evident in Δcpkk2 mutants, when compared with the controls. Virulence on chestnut was affected in both the Δcpkk1 and Δcpkk2 strains, which were also unable to complete the developmental steps essential for mating. No alterations were reported in Δcpkk3, except under hyperosmotic conditions and in the presence of fludioxonil. Δcpkk2 mutants, however, showed higher sensitivity during growth in medium containing the antibiotic G418 (Geneticin).

Pathogen-host interactions involve competition, synergistic or cooperation and coexistence interactions. Host plant can also regulate niche battle among pathogens by defense response which target one or more pathogens either actively or passively. However, in general, virulent pathogens overcome the host defense strategies to infect it. Plant-pathogen interactions are mainly focused on single host-single disease model of infection. However, microbes occur in complex communities in nature and plant infections generally include more than one genotypes and show complexities which cannot be explained by single host-single disease model. Here, we discuss recent understandings about the host-multi-pathogen interactions and their effects on host resistance as well as susceptibility. Here we highlight the recent insights on co-infection systems and identify their future implications in plant disease epidemiology and management.

Signal transduction plays a vital role in cellular behaviour as cells respond to various stimuli in different ways and utilize diverse pathways for accomplishing their task. Determination of the pathway followed by various cytokines can be achieved using specific inhibitors which include theophylline (TPH), TMB-8 and W7 that hinder calmodulin binding to Ca2+; sphingosine (SPH), H7 and staurosporine that inhibit protein kinase C (PKC) activation; and mevalonate (MEV) or the anti-p21rasantibody which block G-proteins. This study shows that the immunologically important class II antigens in human cells are up-regulated predominately via the same pathway after gamma-interferon (γ-IFN) treatment, whereas murine cells are activated by other signalling routes. Thus, the calcium/calmodulin (Ca2+/Cam) pathway is preferentially selected for human cells whereas the PKC pathway is more often chosen for murine cells. These findings are firmly supported by other reports and show, in addition, a u...

Metalloregulators regulate transcription in response to metal ions. Many studies have provided insights into how transcription is activated upon metal binding by MerR-family metalloregulators. In contrast, how transcription is turned off after activation is unclear. Turning off transcription promptly is important, however, as the cells would not want to continue expressing metal resistance genes and thus waste energy after metal stress is relieved. Using single-molecule FRET measurements we studied the dynamic interactions of the copper efflux regulator (CueR), a Cu + -responsive MerR-family metalloregulator, with DNA. Besides quantifying its DNA binding and unbinding kinetics, we discovered that CueR spontaneously flips its binding orientation at the recognition site. CueR also has two different binding modes, corresponding to interactions with specific and nonspecific DNA sequences, which would facilitate recognition localization. Most strikingly, a CueR molecule coming from solut...

Rice blast disease caused by Magnaporthe oryzae is one of the most destructive diseases of rice. Field isolates of M. oryzae rapidly adapt to their hosts and climate. Tracking the genetic and pathogenic variability of field isolates is essential to understand how M. oryzae interacts with hosts and environments. In this study, a total of 1,022 United States field isolates collected from 1959 to 2015 were analyzed for pathogenicity toward eight international rice differentials. A subset of 457 isolates was genotyped with 10 polymorphic simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers. The average polymorphism information content value of markers was 0.55, suggesting that the SSR markers were highly informative to capture the population variances. Six genetic clusters were identified by both STRUCTURE and discriminant analysis of principal components methods. Overall, Nei’s diversity of M. oryzae in the United States was 0.53, which is higher than previously reported in a world rice blast collecti...

Metals are essential for all microorganisms as they are required as cofactors of enzymes that mediate metabolic processes that are indispensable for cellular energy production and growth. Some metals, such as zinc, are readily bound and serve as key structural elements of many macromolecules. Thus, to grow, microorganisms have an essential quota for several metals. The catalytic and other chemical properties of metals that microorganisms value create issues for metal management. Due to their high affi nity for amino acids and their reactive nature, uptake, intracellular transport, and storage of metals are mediated by tightly regulated proteins. Protein chaperones function to supply some specifi c metals to sites of utilization and, in some cases, storage. In particular, iron is diffi cult to acquire and is stored as a mineral in protein nanocages. Other metals, when present in excess, induce the expression of export systems to maintain a defi ned intracellular concentration of readily exchangeable metal.

Horizontal gene transfer (HGT) plays a pivotal role in the evolution and adaptation of genome-reduced mycoplasmas. The conjugative properties of these organisms are key in this phenomenon but are largely understudied, particularly in vivo. In the present study, the ruminant pathogen Mycoplasma agalactiae was used as a model organism to document mycoplasma conjugation in environments of increas ing complexity, from axenic to cell and organotypic culture conditions. Compared to axenic mating conditions, mycoplasma co-cultivation with goat epithelial cells or bovine precision-cut lung slices resulted in enhanced mating frequencies with high rates of M. agalactiae integrative and conjugative element (ICEA) self-dissemination. These results were conditioned by the presence of eukaryotic cells in the culture and influ enced by competition between mating partners but were not limited to M. agalactiae, as similar results were observed with Mycoplasma bovis. Mycoplasma conjugation ex vivo was further characterized by analyzing mycoplasma chromosomal transfer (MCT), a newly discovered mechanism of horizontal exchange of chromosomal DNA that generates mosaic genomes. Compared to ICEA transfer, MCT was detected at lower rates under cell and organotypic culture conditions, suggesting a negative impact of these cellular environments on MCT or its progeny. Finally, mating experiments under nutrient-deprived conditions identified nucleotide stress as a potential factor influencing the modulation of mycoplasma conjugation by eukaryotic host cells. In conclusion, these results suggest that HGT in vivo is likely underestimated and provide valuable models to further study mycoplasma conjugation ex vivo.

Horizontal gene transfer (HGT) plays a pivotal role in the evolution and adaptation of genome-reduced mycoplasmas. The conjugative properties of these organisms are key in this phenomenon but are largely understudied, particularly in vivo. In the present study, the ruminant pathogen Mycoplasma agalactiae was used as a model organism to document mycoplasma conjugation in environments of increas ing complexity, from axenic to cell and organotypic culture conditions. Compared to axenic mating conditions, mycoplasma co-cultivation with goat epithelial cells or bovine precision-cut lung slices resulted in enhanced mating frequencies with high rates of M. agalactiae integrative and conjugative element (ICEA) self-dissemination. These results were conditioned by the presence of eukaryotic cells in the culture and influ enced by competition between mating partners but were not limited to M. agalactiae, as similar results were observed with Mycoplasma bovis. Mycoplasma conjugation ex vivo was further characterized by analyzing mycoplasma chromosomal transfer (MCT), a newly discovered mechanism of horizontal exchange of chromosomal DNA that generates mosaic genomes. Compared to ICEA transfer, MCT was detected at lower rates under cell and organotypic culture conditions, suggesting a negative impact of these cellular environments on MCT or its progeny. Finally, mating experiments under nutrient-deprived conditions identified nucleotide stress as a potential factor influencing the modulation of mycoplasma conjugation by eukaryotic host cells. In conclusion, these results suggest that HGT in vivo is likely underestimated and provide valuable models to further study mycoplasma conjugation ex vivo.

Trypanosoma cruzi is a protozoan parasite that causes Chagas disease, endemic in Ecuador. In the province of Los Ríos, where the vector Triatoma dimidiata is present, vector-borne transmission is considered the primary route of infection. Many mammalian are involved in the transmission cycle of T. cruzi. Nonetheless, significant gaps remain regarding mammalian reservoirs along the Ecuadorian coast, especially in ecologically altered areas. To investigate the role of wild and domestic mammals as hosts, we assessed the presence of T. cruzi in two localities of Quevedo canton. Sampling focused on wild, domestic, and peridomestic mammals using live capture techniques such as mist nets for bats and Sherman and Tomahawk traps for terrestrial mammals. Blood samples were collected from all individuals, and DNA was extracted using a commercial kit. PCR was performed targeting three regions of the T. cruzi genome. In total, 383 mammals were sampled: 66 domestic animals, 6 peridomestic, and 317 wild individuals. Of the wild mammals, 216 were captured in La Virginia 2 and 95 in the Jacome Forest. Four wild individuals tested positive for T. cruzi, including three Glossophaga soricina and one Marmosa simonsi, all collected from La Virginia 2, a peri-urban community. None of the domestic or peridomestic animals were infected. This study reports, for the first time, the infection of M. simonsi with T. cruzi. The presence of positive cases exclusively in an area close to human settlements raises concern about the risk of parasite transmission in transitional landscapes. Transmission cycles of the parasite are known to be influenced by land-use change, deforestation, and host community composition. These factors may alter ecological interactions between vectors and hosts, potentially favoring transmission. Further research is needed in Ecuador to understand how ecosystem alterations shape the sylvatic cycle of T. cruzi, particularly the role of bats in disease maintenance.

Callosobruchus chinensis (L.) is the major insect pest of stored grains especially several pulses, in India. Ovicidal activity of turmeric was evaluated against pulse beetle on store split green gram seeds "Mung bean" (Vigna radiata L.). In the laboratory of "Zoology department, Hindu college, University of Delhi" during the period from September to October 2022. Efficacy of turmeric powder was evaluated in the respect of % adult eclosion in control and treatment container. Turmeric powder was found to be quite effective in checking the eclosion of adult in the experimental jar containing moong bean seeds and turmeric powder in comparison to that in the control jar; % eclosion in treatment and control being 34 and 59 respectively.

Maize late wilt disease, caused by the fungus Magnaporthiopsis maydis, poses a significant threat to susceptible crops. Despite efforts to control it through resistant maize varieties, virulent fungal strains might overcome immunity. This study assessed Israeli M. maydis strains with weak, moderate, and highly pathogenic degrees in two open-air pot trials. Even weak pathogenic strains harmed susceptible cultivars (17% growth suppression and 33% death). In contrast, resistant cultivars were minimally affected, except when exposed to a highly aggressive isolate, resulting in a 5% growth suppression and 11% mortality at harvest. Unexpectedly, in a susceptible cultivar during sprouting, a mixed inoculum with the two more virulent isolates resulted in reduced disease (15%) compared to the highly aggressive strain alone (33%). At harvest (day 84), this pattern was reversed, and adding a weak virulent strain to this combination led to more severe growth (33%) and health (71%) disruption, accompanied by a higher level of M. maydis infection (371% compared to the aggressive strain alone). Similar interactions were found in other strain groups tested. Additionally, some subspecies groups specialize in growth suppression, while others in wilting, suggesting biotrophic/necrotrophic variations. The study revealed complex interactions in mixed populations, emphasizing the destructive potential of the pathogen to resistant cultivars. Understanding the role of maize age-related immunity in disease generation uncovers risks associated with this pathogen.

This paper presents a study on the influence of seed treatment on seed germination in 10 consanguineous lines and 10 simple hybrids (from KWS Ltd), grown in the area of the Traian commune, Brăila county, in the 2018-2019 crop year. Seed treatment was performed with the Redigo M fungicide (100 g/l Protioconazole + 20 g/l Metalaxil) and the Langis insecticide (300 g/l Cypermethrin). In the laboratory, the germination potential was determined using the STAS 1634/1999 method, both for untreated and treated seeds and the potential of emergence was determined using the cold test method 6 ˚C, for treated seeds only. From the data analysis, the germination value varied between 93-95% for simple hybrids for both untreated and treated seeds, and for consanguineous lines, it varied between 92-95% for untreated seeds and 91-94% for treated seeds; the value of the cold test varied between 92-95% for hybrids and 91-93% for consanguineous lines. All hybrids and consanguineous lines recorded germination and cold test values above the minimum values allowed by STAS (a minimum germination value of 90% and a minimum cold test value of 85%). The treatment of corn seeds did not adversely affect their germination and viability.

A description is given of Microcotyle pomatomi and Microcotyle aegypticus n. sp., Microcotylidae Taschenberg, 1897 from the gills of Pomatomus saltatrix Linnaeus, 1766, inhabiting Damietta region of the Mediterranean sea in Egypt. The genus Microcotyle v. Ben. et Hesse, 1863, is reported for the first time in Egypt. Pomatomus saltatrix is a new host record for the genus Microcotyle. Particular attention has been paid to the internal anatomy particularly the reproductive system, digestive system, anterior oral suckers and opisthaptor. M. Aegypticus differs from all known species of the genus Microcotyle by possessing a pair of  small anchors. The diagnosis of the genus Microcotyle has been emended.

Teku, Gabriel Ndipagbornchi 2017 Document Version: Peer reviewed version (aka post-print) Link to publication Citation for published version (APA): Teku, G. N. (2017). Computational analysis on the effects of variations in T and B cells. Primary immunodeficiencies and cancer neoepitopes. Lund University: Faculty of Medicine.

Host–pathogen interaction and crosstalk are very crucial to study disease susceptibility and resistance. Various susceptibility genes (S-genes) have been reported and studied for understanding the mechanism of disease development in plants. Developing disease resistance using modern techniques is dependent on a comprehensive understanding of the role of susceptibility genes in disease development. By disrupting susceptibility genes in the host, resistance has been developed in rice, tomato, pepper, and many other plants. More precisely, in the case of bacterial blight, effector-binding elements (EBE) in the promoter region of the S-gene are important targets to restrict bacterial transcription factor proteins from S-gene activation. Identification of S-genes along with R-genes is very important for building the foundation of third-generation disease resistance in plants.

Field experiment near Palosi drain was conducted to study the effect of tube well (TW) and waste water (WW) with or without basal dose of NP and K on the yield and heavy metal uptake of tomato during 2008. The soil of the experimental site was sandy loam, slightly alkaline, moderately calcareous with phytotoxically high concentration of Cu, Fe and Mn while Cd, Cr, Ni, Pb and Zn were less than the levels considered toxic to the plants. The tomato biomass was significantly (p<0.05) affected by different treatments. Taller plants and higher biomass was produced in plots receiving WW with or without NP and K and TW water receiving basal dose of NP and K while lower biomass and shorter plants were produced in plots receiving only TW water indicating the nutritive value of WW application. The results of metal concentration in leaves and fruit showed that with exception of Cd, there were significant variation (p<0.05) in the plant uptake of metals when irrigated with different supply of irrigation water. The overall results showed that leaves accumulated higher concentration (with exception of Cu) of heavy metals studied compared to fruit. The concentration of Cr, Fe, Mn Pb and Zn in leaves was above the permissible limits when irrigated with waste water while waste water supplemented with fertilizers showed reduction in heavy metals uptake. The concentration of Fe and Pb was above the permissible limits in fruits indicating toxicity. It was also noted that plants receiving sole application of WW accumulated more heavy metals compared to WW plus half dose of NP and K while the TW irrigated plots accumulated less heavy metals indicating that their was no build up of heavy metals in the river bed soils because of its coarse texture. It can be concluded that tomato can be irrigated with effluents containing moderate supply of heavy metals on coarse textured soil.

The aim of this study was to discover the host factors and the relative abundance of Candida species associated with oral squamous-cell carcinoma (OSCC). DNA was extracted from 52 tissue biopsies (cases: 25 OSCC; controls and sequenced for the fungal internal transcribed spacer 2 region using Illumina™ 2 x300bp chemistry. Merged reads were classified to species level using a BLASTNalgorithm with UNITE's named species sequences as reference. Candida albicans was flourished in OSCC tissues, followed by Candida tropicalis, Candida parapsilosis, Candida doubliniensis, Candida etchellsii, Candida metapsilosis, Candida santamariae and Candida albicans_nov_92.15%. The older age, low socioeconomic status, poor oral hygiene status, periodontal disease status, oral risk habits, nutritional deficiencies, and OSCC status appeared as host factors that accounted for elevated C. albicans occurrence (61.2% of average relative abundance) in all OSCC tissues (100%) of a group of male patients. Powered matched case-control studies, controlling confounders to apply multivariate logistic regression are much recommended to find out the reliability of results of the present study.

Pathogens have the well-known advantage of rapid evolution due to short generation times and large populations. However, pathogens have the rarely noted disadvantage of the vulnerability to stress involved in proliferation as well as being localized. Presented here are numerous new paradigms in immunology, and especially immunometabolism, which are derived from examining how hosts capitalize on pathogen vulnerabilities to stress. Universally, proliferation requires both resources and synthesis, which are vulnerable to resource-limiting stress and damaging/noxious stress, respectively. Pathogens are particularly vulnerable to stress at the time when they are most threatening-when they are proliferating. Since immune cells actively controlling pathogens (effector cells) typically do not proliferate at infected sites, there is a "stress vulnerability gap" wherein proliferating pathogens are more vulnerable to any type of stress than are the attacking effector cells. Hosts actively stress vulnerable proliferating pathogens by restricting resources (resource-limiting stress) and generating noxious waste products (damaging/disruptive stress) in a fundamental defense herein termed "immune-stressing." While nutritional immunity emphasizes denying pathogens micronutrients, immune-stressing extends the concept to restricting all resources, especially glucose and oxygen, coupled with the generation of noxious metabolic products such as lactic acid, reactive oxygen species (ROS), and heat to further harm or stress the pathogens. At present much of the field of immunometabolism centers on how nutrition and metabolism regulate immune function, a central feature being the inefficient use of glucose via aerobic glycolysis (with much lactate/ lactic acid production) by effector immune cells. In contrast, immune-stressing emphasizes how the immune system uses nutrition and metabolism to control infections. Immune-stressing addresses effector cell glycolysis at the infected site by noting that the high uptake of glucose linked with high output of lactic acid is an ideal double-pronged stressor targeting proliferating pathogens. Once the basic vulnerability of pathogen proliferation is recognized, numerous other paradigms of immunometabolism, and immunology as a whole, are challenged.

Bombyx mori cytoplasmic polyhedrosis virus (BmCPV) is a non-enveloped dsRNA virus, which specifically infect the midgut epithelium of B. mori. BmCPV enters permissive cells via clathrin-dependent endocytosis employing β1 integrin mediated internalization. Until now, the cell entry mechanism of BmCPV has not been known clearly. Here, we investigated whether tyrosine-protein kinase Src64B-like is involved in the cell entry of BmCPV. The Src64B-like gene was cloned and expressed in Escherichia coli (E. coli), and the recombinant protein Src64B-like was used to immunize mouse for preparation of anti-Src64B-like polyclonal antibody (pAb). After Src64B-like gene was silenced by RNAi, the infection of BmCPV was reduced by 59.48%±2.18% and 92.22%±1.12% in vitro and in vivo autonomously. Contrary to it, BmCPV infection could be enhanced by increasing the expression of Src64B-like. In addition, immunofluorescence assay showed that Src64B-like protein did not co-localize with BmCPV in the cultured BmN cells during viral infection. These results indicate that Src64B-like protein participates and plays an important role in the cell entry of BmCPV, but not contacting directly with BmCPV.

Sporothrix schenckii is one of the etiological agents of sporotrichosis, a cutaneous and subcutaneous infection distributed worldwide. Like other medically relevant fungi, its cell wall is a molecular scaffold to display virulence factors, such as protective pigments, hydrolytic enzymes, and adhesins. Cell wall proteins with adhesive properties have been previously reported, but only a handful of them have been identified and characterized. One of them is Gp70, an abundant cell wall protein mainly found on the surface of yeast-like cells. Since the protein also has a role in the activity of 3-carboxy-cis,cis-muconate cyclase and its abundance is low in highly virulent strains, its role in the Sporothrix-host interaction remains unclear. Here, a set of GP70-silenced strains was generated, and the molecular and phenotypical characterization was performed. The results showed that mutants with high silencing levels showed a significant reduction in the adhesion to laminin and fibrinogen, enzyme activity, and defects in the cell wall composition, which included reduced mannose, rhamnose, and protein content, accompanied by an increment in β-1,3-glucans levels. The cell wall N-linked glycan content was significantly reduced. These strains induced poor TNFα and IL-6 levels when interacting with human peripheral blood mononuclear cells in a dectin-1-, TLR2-, and TLR4-dependent stimulation. The IL-1β and IL-10 levels were significantly higher and were stimulated via dectin-1. Phagocytosis and stimulation of neutrophil extracellular traps by human granulocytes were increased in highly GP70-silenced strains. Furthermore, these mutants showed virulence attenuation in the invertebrate model Galleria mellonella. Our results demonstrate that Gp70 is a versatile protein with adhesin properties, is responsible for the activity of 3-carboxy-cis,cis-muconate cyclase, and is relevant for the S. schenckii-host interaction.

In terms of productivity, potential for spread, and area covered, citrus is regarded as one of the major fruit crops.  Citrus fruits account for around 37% of all fruit produced, with mandarins and oranges making up nearly 21% of this total. These days, citrus greening disease (CGD) is a major concern. Citrus decline is a complicated issue that causes  orchard output to gradually drop until it eventually results in unproductive orchards. Citrus greening, tristeza, and gradual decline are the most prevalent illnesses that cause citrus decline. This study's goal was to determine how
common citrus greening illnesses are across Sargodha's citrus-growing tehsils and kinds. Data on prevalence,  incidence, and severity were collected in Sargodha's several tehsils, including Shahpur, Bhalwal, Kot-Momin, and  Sargodha. Using particular primer sets A2/J5 and OI1/OI2C, the pathogen was characterized from representative  citrus greening disease samples. According to the results of the Citrus Greening Disease, Bhalwal had the highest incidence rate (53.33%). Shahpur had 50% of the highest disease severity, whereas Bhalwal had 25% of the lowest
disease severity. Twenty symptomatic grape fruit samples, ten fruiter samples, fifteen kinnow samples, five musambi  samples, and ten sweet orange samples had their DNA isolated using the CTAB method. The pathogen DNA was recovered from a sweet orange sample that exhibits definite signs of greening and kinnow. Musambi samples were
also amplified, and the amplified PCR product was sequenced to examine genetic heterogeneity in several citrus cultivars. To check for variations that would be useful for managing diseases in the future, a phylogenetic tree was generated as part of the phylogenetic analysis process.

Rice blast (Magnaporthe oryzae) is a devastating disease affecting rice production globally. The development of cultivars with host resistance has been proved to be the best strategy for disease management. Several rice-resistance genes (R) have been recognized which induce resistance to blast in rice but R gene-mediated mechanisms resulting in defense response still need to be elucidated. Here, mutant lines generated through CRISPR/Cas9 based targeted mutagenesis to investigate the role of Pi21 against blast resistance and 17 mutant plants were obtained in T0 generation with the mutation rate of 66% including 26% bi-allelic, 22% homozygous, 12% heterozygous, and 3% chimeric and 17 T-DNA-free lines in T1 generation. The homozygous mutant lines revealed enhanced resistance to blast without affecting the major agronomic traits. Furthermore, comparative proteome profiling was adopted to study the succeeding proteomic regulations, using iTRAQ-based proteomic analysis. We identified 372 ...

Human malaria, caused by Plasmodium parasites, is a fatal disease that disrupts the host's physiological balance and affects the neuroendocrine system. This review explores how malaria influences and is influenced by hormones. Malaria activates the Hypothalamus-Pituitary-Adrenal axis, leading to increased cortisol, aldosterone, and epinephrine. Cortisol, while reducing inflammation, aids parasite survival, whereas epinephrine helps manage hypoglycemia. The Hypothalamus-Pituitary-Gonad and Hypothalamus-Pituitary-Thyroid axes are also impacted, resulting in lower sex and thyroid hormone levels. Malaria disrupts the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS), causing higher angiotensin-II and aldosterone levels, contributing to edema, hyponatremia and hypertension. Malaria-induced anemia is exacerbated by increased hepcidin, which impairs iron absorption, reducing both iron availability for the parasite and red blood cell formation, despite elevated erythropoietin. Hypoglycemia is common due to decreased glucose production and hyperinsulinemia, although some cases show hyperglycemia due to stress hormones and inflammation. Hypocalcemia, and hypophosphatemia are associated with low Vitamin D3 and parathyroid hormone but high calcitonin. Hormones such as DHEA, melatonin, PTH, Vitamin D3, hepcidin, progesterone, and erythropoietin protects against malaria. Furthermore, synthetic analogs, receptor agonists and antagonists or mimics of hormones like DHEA, melatonin, serotonin, PTH, vitamin D3, estrogen, progesterone, angiotensin, and somatostatin are being explored as potential antimalarial treatments or adjunct therapies. Additionally, hormones like leptin and PCT are being studied as probable markers of malaria infection.

Intracellular parasites of the genus Leishmania have coevolved to
regulate host macrophage cell biology, enabling them to survive. It has
become clear that small noncoding RNAs are involved in shaping innate
and acquired immunity against pathogens. In most situations, small
noncoding RNAs exert their functions via RNA interference (RNAi)
pathway. It is known that proteins of the Argonaute (AGO) family play a
critical role in RNAi as a part of the RNA-induced silencing complex. It
is unsurprising that pathogens, including Leishmania regulate the RNAi
pathway. Herein, we review evidence supporting the potential regulation
of host macrophage RNAi machinery by Leishmania via targeting AGO
proteins and associated proteins to create a pro-parasitic environment.
A model is emerging that Leishmania performs de-facto cross-kingdom
RNAi to regulate host gene expression and create a pro-parasitic climate
leading to the development of chronic infection.

Dysentery is a gastrointestinal infection characterized by mucus and blood with stool usually caused by bacteria and parasites from contaminated food and water with faeces. The disease is widely recorded in developing countries, especially with poor health and hygiene conditions. Shigellosis and amoebiasis are two major types of dysentery that cause upsetting gastrointestinal microbial flora essential for proper digestions. Diarrhoea, pain, fever, and feeling of incomplete defecation are common symptoms of dysentery. Probiotics, especially Lactobacillus spp. are currently used in diarrhoea and indigestions to improve digestive health, grow immunity, and general well-being. The actual mechanism of action of Lactobacillus spp. is still not precise in the literature. In this review, we summarise the findings of recent studies based on the roles of Lactobacillus spp. in the management of pathogens of bacillary and amoebic dysentery in clinical, preclinical, and in vitro studies.

Viewed broadly or up close, human skeletal individuals, their substrates, and biomolecules represent irreplaceable material evidence of our embodied biosocial lived experiences and our evolutionary, co-evolutionary histories and human-animal-environment interactions. Our job as researchers is to identify meaningful questions to ask of them, and use process-oriented research including ethical methods to answer them. As Armelagos and Van Gerven (2004) state, we are “searching for nothing less than the identity of our science defined by that small space in which the possible meets the meaningful.” Perhaps in no other scientific discipline are the tools for accomplishing this developing more quickly than in paleogenomic, and within it, ancient pathogens. These are maturing domains, and recent methodological advances , especially computational approaches, have radically expanded the scope of detectable microbes that were previously invisible archaeologically. These advances have primarily been used to describe pathogens associated with past disease events, like Yersinia pestis and plague pandemics. They’ve  also generated evidence on the pathogens’ phylogenetic relationships, pathogenic mechanisms, and temporal and geographic distribution . Yet when ancient pathogens data are generated through process-oriented and collaborative research and interpreted within broader historical, evolutionary, ecological, biocultural, and political-economic contexts, they gain even wider relevance and applicability, especially to present-day disease threats. Specifically, this research can yield information vital for reconstructing pathogens’ condition-specific transmissibility, virulence, comorbidity and syndemic potential, and resistance mechanisms relative to the human identities, behaviors, structures, systems, and processes that mediate and interact with them.

Plasmopara halstedii (Farl.) Berl. et de Toni is the oomycete that causes
sunflower downy mildew (SDM). Traditional means of controlling this pathogen are using
resistant hybrids, crop rotation and seed coating with fungicides. Disease control strate-
gies that use a variety of approaches are becoming an increasingly essential aspect of
pest management strategies. We conducted this exploratory investigation to evaluate
whether specific plant resistance inducers might work against P. halstedii. In this study
we used azadirachtin (AZA) a botanical insecticide; benzothiadiazole (BTH) and Tricho-
derma asperellum. Three-day-old susceptible sunflower seedlings were pre-treated with
different doses of inducers for two hours. The seedlings were immediately inoculated
of 7 different pathotype of P. halstedii. As a control, metalaxyl-M a systemic fungicide
was used. Nine-day-old sunflower plant leaves were sprayed with bidistilled water to
stimulate sporangial growth. In vivo experiments showed that BTH, T. asperellum and
the highest doses of AZA significantly reduced downy mildew symptoms. The various
pathotypes of the pathogen significantly affected the plant height and disease symptoms
under experiments.
azadirachtin benzothiadiazole Plasmopara halstedii plant resistance inducers sunflower Trichoderma asperellum

The prevalence of vector borne disease epidemics are influenced by the thickness of the vectors persistent to climate, landscape, and environment. Historically evidenced of triggering epidemics in both vertical magnitude and horizontal spread (spatial diffusion) of increasing vector borne diseases, such as; malaria, dengue, chikungunya, Japanese encephalitis, filariasis, leishmaniases, scrub typhus, Kyasanur forest disease (KFD), West Nile virus, Lyme disease, Zika virus, and Rift valley fever in the tropical and subtropical regions, particularly, in the third world countries for the past several decades. The geographical analysis of each one VBD epidemics has a unique vector ecology and environment. The prevalence of epidemic distribution patterns and seasonal variations, and associated vector ecology were analyzed throughout the world for the past periods, in order to

This work focused on three important human pathogens; Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhi , Klebsiella pneumonae. Results showed that there is several virulence factors in this bacteria such as capsule, enzymes, motility and fimbriae. Escherichia coli included fimbriae type I, II and III. Salmonella typhi contained only type II and III. While Klebsiella pneumonae included type I and III. Probiotic preparations from Lactobacillus acidophilus appeared to affect the bacterial growth and adhesion. Bacterial growth was inhibited by using stock lactic acid bacteria filtrate and 50:50 diluted filtrate. Higher inhibition zones were recorded during the use of stock filtrate of the probiotic on the pathogenic bacterial isolates. Bacterial adhesion to epithelial cells was inhibited also by using the probiotic. In the case of Escherichia coli, the adhesion was reduced from 59-61 to 24-21 and 33-30 bacterium/cell by using the stock and diluted probiotic respectively. In the case of Salmonella typhi reduction of bacterial adherence was also observed from 55-53 to 11-13 and 16-14bacterium/cell by using the stock and diluted probiotic respectively. While in the case of Klebsiella pneumonae from 44-46 to 8-9 and 14-10 bacterium/cell by using the stock and diluted probiotic respectively. This results explained that the bacterial adhesion is a crucial step in the colonization and pathogenesis of bacteria, which can be inhibited by using probiotic preparations.

The OAuth protocol has emerged as a vital component within contemporary web applications, facilitating the secure authentication and authorization of users for thirdparty services. Nonetheless, the widespread adoption of OAuth has heightened concerns regarding potential security vulnerabilities. This research endeavors to conduct a thorough security evaluation of the OAuth protocol as implemented in modern web applications, aiming to both identify and mitigate these risks. By scrutinizing the OAuth 2.0 specification in the context of contemporary systems-centric attacks, this study reveals vulnerabilities such as redirect_uri validation weaknesses that leave Identity Providers susceptible to redirect confusion and brute-force attacks on OAuth client_credentials grant types. Furthermore, it delves into the misuse of the scope parameter, demonstrating its potential for enabling unauthorized access. Through the presentation of end-to-end attack scenarios, which amalgamate various attack techniques with prevalent web application vulnerabilities, this research elucidates the possibility of complete compromise in the secure delegated access promised by OAuth 2.0. Moreover, the study includes the development of a laboratory environment tailored for a common OAuth scenario, intended to aid developers and security researchers in simulating exploitation and fostering a deeper understanding of the associated risks.

A harmonized balance between positive and negative regulation of pattern recognition receptor (PRR)-initiated immune responses is required to achieve the most favorable outcome for the host. This balance is crucial because it must not only ensure activation of the first line of defense against viral infection but also prevent inappropriate immune activation, which results in autoimmune diseases. Recent studies have shown how signal transduction pathways initiated by PRRs are positively and negatively regulated by diverse modulators to maintain host immune homeostasis. However, viruses have developed strategies to subvert the host antiviral response and establish infection. Viruses have evolved numerous genes encoding immunomodulatory proteins that antagonize the host immune system. This review focuses on the current state of knowledge regarding key host factors that regulate innate immune signaling molecules upon viral infection and discusses evidence showing how specific viral proteins counteract antiviral responses via immunomodulatory strategies.

Listeria monocytogenes causes listeriosis, an infectious and potentially fatal disease of animals and humans. A diverse network of transcriptional regulators, including LysR-type catabolite control protein C (CcpC), is critical for the survival of L. monocytogenes and its ability to transition into the host environment. In this study, we explored the physiological and genetic consequences of deleting ccpC and the effects of such deletion on the ability of L. monocytogenes to cause disease. We found that ccpC deletion did not impact hemolytic activity, whereas it resulted in significant reductions in phospholipase activities. Western blotting revealed that the ΔccpC strain produced significantly reduced levels of the cholesterol-dependent cytolysin LLO relative to the wildtype F2365 strain. However, the ΔccpC mutant displayed no significant intracellular growth defect in macrophages. Furthermore, ΔccpC strain exhibited reduction in plaque numbers in fibroblasts compared to F2365, but plaque size was not significantly affected by ccpC deletion. In a murine model system, the ΔccpC strain exhibited a significantly reduced bacterial burden in the liver and spleen compared to the wildtype F2365 strain. Interestingly, the deletion of this gene also enhanced the survival of L. monocytogenes under conditions of H 2 O 2induced oxidative stress. Transcriptomic analyses performed under H 2 O 2induced oxidative stress conditions revealed that DNA repair, cellular responses to DNA damage and stress, metalloregulatory proteins, and genes involved in the biosynthesis of peptidoglycan and teichoic acids were significantly induced in the ccpC deletion strain relative to F2365. In contrast, genes encoding internalin, 1-phosphatidylinositol phosphodiesterase, and genes associated with sugarspecific phosphotransferase system components, porphyrin, branched-chain amino acids, and pentose phosphate pathway were significantly downregulated in the ccpC deletion strain relative to F2365. This finding highlights CcpC as a key factor that regulates L. monocytogenes physiology and responses to oxidative stress by controlling the expression of important metabolic pathways.

Listeria monocytogenes is a foodborne bacterial pathogen that causes listeriosis. Positive regulatory factor A (PrfA) is a pleiotropic master activator of virulence genes of L. monocytogenes that becomes active upon the entry of the bacterium into the cytosol of infected cells. L. monocytogenes can survive and multiply at low temperatures; this is accomplished through the maintenance of appropriate membrane fluidity via branched-chain fatty acid (BCFA) synthesis. Branched-chain α-keto acid dehydrogenase (BKD), which is composed of four polypeptides encoded by lpd, bkdA1, bkdA2, and bkdB, is known to play a vital role in BCFA biosynthesis. Here, we constructed BKD-deficient Listeria strains by in-frame deletion of lpd, bkdA1, bkdA2, and bkdB genes. To determine the role in in vivo and in vitro, mouse model challenges, plaque assay in murine L2 fibroblast, and intracellular replication in J744A.1 macrophage were conducted. BKD-deficient strains exhibited defects in BCFA composition, virulence, and PrfA-regulon function within the host cells. Transcriptomics analysis revealed that the transcript level of the PrfA-regulon was lower in ΔbkdA1 strain than those in the wild-type. This study demonstrates that L. monocytogenes strains lacking BKD complex components were defective in PrfA-regulon function, and full activation of wild-type prfA may not occur within host cells in the absence of BKD. Further study will investigate the consequences of BKD deletion on PrfA function through altering BCFA catabolism.

Field experiment was conducted to study the effect of wastewater irrigation and different organic and inorganic amendments on the phytoavailability of metals to wheat crop. Wheat was grown in (2x1 m plot) irrigated with wastewater generated from HIE (Hayatabad Industrial Estate, Peshawar, Pakistan) and municipal wastes during 2008. Five different amendments viz farm yard manure (FYM), poultry manure (PM), diammonium phosphate (DAP), triple super phosphate (TSP) and humic acid (HA) were applied and mixed with soil prior to crop growing. In addition, a control (Tubewell irrigation TW) and only wastewater (WW) irrigation plot (without amendments) was also set up for comparison. The FYM and PM were applied at the rate of 10 tons ha-1. The DAP and TSP were added @ of 150 kg ha-1 as P where as HA was added @ of 1.5 kg ha-1. A Basal dose of N and K @ of 120 and 60 kg respectively were also added to all experimental plots except control. The results showed that wheat yield and yield components were significantly increased with the addition of all the amendments compared to control and the higher increase was noted in HA treated plots. The effect of different amendments applied on AB-DTPA extractable metals was significant for Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni and Pb (P<0.05) and non significant for Cd, Cr and Zn. Higher concentration were noted in the wastewater applied plots with exception of Zn that was lowest in wastewater irrigated plots. The effect of all the amendments on AB-DTPA extractable metals was comparable with exception of Pb that was significantly reduced by DAP. It was concluded that all the metals under study were below the toxicity level in soil and none of the essential nutrient was deficient. The leaves metal concentrations showed that higher values of all the metal under study were noted in leaves when irrigated with WW and TW irrigated plants resulted minimum accumulation of metals in leaves. The effect of different amendments on the plant uptake of metal was variable. Addition of HA reduced the uptake of Cd, Cr, Mn whereas DAP was effective in reducing the phytoavailability of Pb and Zn.

Phytophthora is an aggressive plant pathogen, pose substantial threats to global agriculture, leading to extensive crop losses. Controlling Phytophthora diseases remains challenging, with limited effective methods available. Host resistance emerges as a promising strategy, but its sustainability hinges on a profound comprehension of the intricate molecular dynamics governing Phytophthora-plant interactions. These interactions unveil a hemi-biotrophic lifestyle of Phytophthora, transitioning from biotrophic to necrotrophic phases during infection. The infection process involves a series of orchestrated events, including chemotactic attraction, penetration, and

Numerous cancer studies have combined different datasets for the prognosis of patients. This study incorporated four networks for significant directed random walk (sDRW) to predict cancerous genes and risk pathways. The study investigated the feasibility of cancer prediction via different networks. In this study, multiple micro array data were analysed and used in the experiment. Six gene expression datasets were applied in four networks to study the effectiveness of the networks in sDRW in terms of cancer prediction. The experimental results showed that one of the proposed networks is outstanding compared to other networks. The network is then proposed to be implemented in sDRW as a walker network. This study provides a foundation for further studies and research on other networks. We hope these finding will improve the prognostic methods of cancer patients.

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) serve as one mechanism by which cells communicate with one another to coordinate behaviors, exchange small molecules, and alter their environment. During infection, many parasitic organisms, like Trichomonas vaginalis, are known to manipulate their host through the shedding of EVs and their subsequent internalization by host cells. Here, we explored the question of how parasite uptake of parasite-derived EVs affects communication between T. vaginalis strains and show that parasites up-regulate and directly transfer proteins that aid in adherence to host cells via EVs. This study broadens our understanding of the role of parasite EVs in infection and provides valuable insights that may be exploited to design strategies to use EVs in treatment and vaccination against this parasite.

There is still no human vaccine against Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii), as one of the most successful parasites. In present study, we designed a subunit vaccine composed of recombinant SAG1 (rSAG1) and recombinant GRA2 (rGRA2) proteins. In order to improve the induced immune responses, rSAG1 and rGRA2 were adsorbed on Poly (DL-lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA) microspheres (MS) prepared by double emulsion solvent evaporation method. BALB/c mice were subcutaneously vaccinated by rSAG1-adsorbed PLGA MS (rSAG1-PLGA), rGRA2adsorbed PLGA MS (rGRA2-PLGA), and the mixture of both formulations (rSAG1/rGRA2-PLGA), twice with a 3-week interval. PLGA MS characteristics, protein release, cellular and humoral immune responses, and protection against acute toxoplasmosis were evaluated. All vaccinated mice induced significantly partial protection and longer survival times associated with higher IFN-γ/IL-10 ratio and higher amount of Toxoplasma-specific IgG antibodies compared to control groups. Interestingly, the synergistic effect of rSAG1 and rGRA2 in eliciting more potent cellular and humoral responses and consequently higher protection in comparison to single antigen was confirmed. This study introduces the mixture of rSAG1 and rGRA2 (derived from different stages of Toxoplasma life-cycle) formulated in PLGA MS as a promising candidate in vaccine development against T. gondii.

Field experiment was conducted to study the effect of wastewater irrigation and different organic and inorganic amendments on the phytoavailability of metals to wheat crop. Wheat was grown in (2x1 m plot) irrigated with wastewater generated from HIE (Hayatabad Industrial Estate, Peshawar, Pakistan) and municipal wastes during 2008. Five different amendments viz farm yard manure (FYM), poultry manure (PM), diammonium phosphate (DAP), triple super phosphate (TSP) and humic acid (HA) were applied and mixed with soil prior to crop growing. In addition, a control (Tubewell irrigation TW) and only wastewater (WW) irrigation plot (without amendments) was also set up for comparison. The FYM and PM were applied at the rate of 10 tons ha-1. The DAP and TSP were added @ of 150 kg ha-1 as P where as HA was added @ of 1.5 kg ha-1. A Basal dose of N and K @ of 120 and 60 kg respectively were also added to all experimental plots except control. The results showed that wheat yield and yield components were significantly increased with the addition of all the amendments compared to control and the higher increase was noted in HA treated plots. The effect of different amendments applied on AB-DTPA extractable metals was significant for Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni and Pb (P<0.05) and non significant for Cd, Cr and Zn. Higher concentration were noted in the wastewater applied plots with exception of Zn that was lowest in wastewater irrigated plots. The effect of all the amendments on AB-DTPA extractable metals was comparable with exception of Pb that was significantly reduced by DAP. It was concluded that all the metals under study were below the toxicity level in soil and none of the essential nutrient was deficient. The leaves metal concentrations showed that higher values of all the metal under study were noted in leaves when irrigated with WW and TW irrigated plants resulted minimum accumulation of metals in leaves. The effect of different amendments on the plant uptake of metal was variable. Addition of HA reduced the uptake of Cd, Cr, Mn whereas DAP was effective in reducing the phytoavailability of Pb and Zn.

In cloud environment, virtualization is used to achieve service rendering using large scalable resources where users pay for share of services. In the cloud, software, platform and infrastructure are provided to the customer as a service, as the number of these customers grows, the task of allocating resources to each user becomes difficult, hence the concept of task scheduling. Tasks Scheduling is crucial and one of the hottest research areas in cloud computing known to be NP-Complete problem, majorly solved by heuristic approaches. Several workflow-scheduling techniques exist for efficient scheduling. Max-min approach is prominent among them, its features includes efficiency and the ability to guarantee optimal solution. Several enhancements to its functionalities have been proposed in the literature and works are still ongoing for improving it. The main objective of this research work is to propose a workflow-scheduling scheme with minimized makespan. This research work introduces an Iterative Mean-Sort with Fair Selection Technique, which always takes care of the task distribution for efficient scheduling. The simulation results demonstrate a performance improvement of the proposed heuristic over the benchmark scheme in terms of minimizing makespan in all the test scenarios. The performance of Max-min+ is compared with the proposed heuristic using different scenarios of scheduling problems. In the end, the proposed heuristic has outperformed the benchmark algorithm. Hence, the proposed algorithm is considered more efficient than the benchmark scheme.

ABSTRACTAimWe examined the anti-acanthamoebic efficacy of solvent extract of C. sinensis) and its chemical constituents against trophozoites and cysts of A. castellanii.Materials and methodsThe effects of C. sinensis solvent extract on A. castellanii was investigated by using anti-trophozoite, anti-encystation, and anti-excystation assays. The solvent extract was also fractionated using Gas Chromatography and the chemical constituents of C. sinensis were tested, individually or combined, against the trophozoites.ResultsTrophozoite replication was inhibited within 24-72 h with exposure to 625-5000 µg/mL of C. sinensis solvent extract. C. sinensis also exhibited a dose-dependent inhibition of encystation, with a marked cysticidal activity at 2500-5000 µg/mL concentrations. Two constituents of C. sinensis, namely epigallocatechin-3-gallate and caffeine, significantly inhibited trophozoite replication and encystation at 100 μM and 200 μM, respectively. Cytotoxicity analysis showed that ...

Phytophthora lateralis is a fungus-like (oomycete) pathogen of trees in the family Cupressaceae, including Chamaecyparis lawsoniana (Lawson cypress or Port Orford cedar). Known in North America since the 1920s, presumably having been accidentally introduced from its assumed East Asian centre of origin, until recently, this pathogen has not been identified causing disease in Europe except for a few isolated outbreaks. However, since 2010, there have been several reports of infection of C. lawsoniana by P. lateralis in the United Kingdom, including Northern Ireland. We sequenced the genomes of four isolates of P. lateralis from two sites in Northern Ireland in 2011. Comparison with the closely related tree and shrub pathogen P. ramorum (cause of ramorum disease of larch and other species in the UK) shows that P. lateralis shares 91.47% nucleotide sequence identity over the core conserved compartments of the genome. The genomes of the four Northern Ireland isolates are almost identical, but we identified several single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) that distinguish between isolates, thereby presenting potential molecular markers of use for tracking routes of spread and in epidemiological studies. Our data reveal very low rates of heterozygosity (compared with P. ramorum), consistent with inbreeding within this P. lateralis population.