Heating and cooling systems

Osmanlı İstanbul’unda (1500-1700) ısınma/ısıtma ve soğutma uygulamaları tarihine yönelik bu çalışma, birincil kaynaklar ile literatürün birleşiminden elde edilen verilerle, erken modern dönemde şehir hayatı, iklim ve çevre arasındaki çok katmanlı ilişkiyi anlamaya yönelik keşifsel bir araştırmadır. Küçük Buzul Çağı olarak bilinen dönemde, ara ara sert iklim koşullarının baskın olduğu bir bağlamda, İstanbul’un bu koşullara verdiği tepkileri ortaya çıkaracak konuları keşfetmeye çalışmaktadır. Yakacak temininden kar ve buz depolamaya, kullanılan teknolojilerden süreçlerin aktörlerine kadar uzanan bu konular, İstanbul’un iklimle kurduğu etkileşimi ve bu etkileşimin idari, sosyal, mimari ve kültürel yansımalarını takip etmektedir. Araştırmada incelenen Devlet Arşivleri ve Topkapı Sarayı belgeleri, ısıtma ve soğutma pratiklerinin idari ve maddi boyutlarını kapsamlı bir şekilde aydınlatmaktadır. Şer’iyye sicilleri, günlük hayatın mikro ölçekteki izlerini sunmakta, şehir ve şehir sakinlerinin tabiat, çevre ve iklimle olan etkileşimini ortaya koymaktadır. Yazma eserler ise iklimin kültürel ve edebi boyutlarını açığa vurmaktadır. Konuya dair varolan literatürün zamansal, mekansal ve tematik olarak parça parça ve yüzeysel kalması ise konuya dair birincil kaynakların değerini daha da artırmaktadır. Bu çerçevede makalenin temel amacı bir tarih yazmaktan çok, yeni sorular üretmek ve mevcut kaynakların sunduğu potansiyeli kavramsal çerçeveler aracılığıyla değerlendirmektir. Çalışma, Osmanlı İstanbul’unun “termal coğrafyası”na dair ilk kapsamlı ve çok disiplinli analiz önerilerinden birini sunmaktadır.

Exploring the relationship between city, climate and environment through heating and cooling practices in Ottoman Istanbul: Source potential and research agenda (1500–1700)

This study conducts an exploratory analysis of heating and cooling practices in Ottoman Istanbul (1500-1700), seeking to elucidate the complex interplay between urban life, temperature, and environment throughout the early modern era. Situated within the context of the Little Ice Age, characterised by extreme weather events, it examines Istanbul's response to environmental adversities. The subjects encompass fuel supply, ice storage, employed technologies, and participating entities, illustrating the city's adaptability to climate and the resultant administrative, social, architectural, and cultural manifestations. Primary sources, including the Ottoman State Archives and Topkapı Palace records, elucidate the administrative and material dimensions of these activities. Sharia court records document minute daily interactions with nature and climate, but manuscripts disclose cultural and literary aspects. The disjointed and cursory quality of the current literature, particularly prior to the 19th century, amplifies the importance of these sources. The study aims to generate new enquiries and investigate the conceptual possibilities of the existing materials, rather than presenting a whole historical narrative. It offers one of the initial thorough, interdisciplinary examinations of the "thermal geography" of Ottoman Istanbul.

In Morocco the thermal insulation of buildings envelop was not a common practice until it becomes obligatory since 2015 to meet the requirements of the Moroccan construction thermal regulation (RTCM) depending on six climate zones. The aim of this paper is to determine the optimum thickness of expanded polystyrene (EPS) and rock wool (RW) of walls constructed of brick for different Moroccan climate zones: Agadir (first zone), Tanger (second zone), Fes (third zone), Ifrane (fourth zone), Marrakech (fifth zone), Errachidia (sixth zone). A numerical model of a multilayered wall is developed to compute the annual heating and cooling loads. These loads are used as input to life cycle cost analysis using the energy and insulation costs. The liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) and electricity are used as energy source, respectively, for heating and cooling. For each case, the calculation is carried out for annual heating and cooling loads and total cost including insulation and energy costs. Res...

Technology used for solve the human problem in the world.We decrease clean air and comfort enviroment. Humidity and temperature desired can be created for consumer need at the application room.

HVAC is a system with Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning. Heating as a warmth, Ventilation for air flow, and Air Conditioning for air circulate. Dehumidifier added for decrease Humidity. System created based SDLC (Sofware Development Life Cycle) and designing interface based on Eight Golden Rule.This sofware can help with designing model and database.

Method used is giving questionnaire to consumer.Questionnaire achieve a total moisture content at the room. Interviewing about HVAC with business owners as a CEO at PT Adhi Trikarya Mandiri.

Result of this research is we can choose room with temperature and relative humidity. Convertion is also easy calculated and input data to the sofware. Choosing a material can produce moisture and capacity dehumidifier suitable with the room need.

The conclusion this research is air clean can create and achieve by design and manage using technology. In this case Information Technology needed for easy calculation and fast design to achieve clean air.

Keyword : dehumidifier,moisture,humidity,temperature,room

Abstrak  Pada perkembangan industri otomotif dibutuhkan perangkat yang dapat bekerja secara otomatis sebagai pendukung proses produksi secara efisien baik dari waktu dan pekerja. Salah satunya adalah dalam bidang industri pengovenan body mobil dimana waktu pengovenan dan sirkulasi udara dapat diatur lebih efisien dan menghasilkan pengovenan yang baik. Penelitian ini menggunakan Programmable Logic Controller (PLC). Sensor suhu yang digunakan adalah sensor suhu PT100 yang mempunyai batas maksimal suhu terukur sebesar 150 o C dengan tingkat kesalahan rata-rata sebesar 0.5%. Set value yang diinginkan adalah suhu sebesar 80 o C dan suhu awal adalah 26 0 C. Waktu yang diperlukan sistem untuk memanaskan ruang pengovenan dari suhu awal ruang 26 ºC sampai suhu set value 80 ºC adalah 12 menit. Waktu yang dibutuhkan sistem untuk mendinginkan suhu set value sampai suhu awal adalah 11 menit. Sistem kontrol yang digunakan untuk menstabilkan adalah kontroler PID (Proporsional, Integral Diferensial) yang dioperasikan secara cascade. Salah satu keuntungannya, sistem kontrol PID menggunakan sistem cascade lebih cepat dalam mengambil sebuah keputusan dan mudah dalam analisis. Dengan metode auto-tuning, maka pencarian parameter Kp, Ki dan Kd dapat lebih cepat dan tepat.

Abstrak  Pada perkembangan industri otomotif dibutuhkan perangkat yang dapat bekerja secara otomatis sebagai pendukung proses produksi secara efisien baik dari waktu dan pekerja. Salah satunya adalah dalam bidang industri pengovenan body mobil dimana waktu pengovenan dan sirkulasi udara dapat diatur lebih efisien dan menghasilkan pengovenan yang baik. Penelitian ini menggunakan Programmable Logic Controller (PLC). Sensor suhu yang digunakan adalah sensor suhu PT100 yang mempunyai batas maksimal suhu terukur sebesar 150 o C dengan tingkat kesalahan rata-rata sebesar 0.5%. Set value yang diinginkan adalah suhu sebesar 80 o C dan suhu awal adalah 26 0 C. Waktu yang diperlukan sistem untuk memanaskan ruang pengovenan dari suhu awal ruang 26 ºC sampai suhu set value 80 ºC adalah 12 menit. Waktu yang dibutuhkan sistem untuk mendinginkan suhu set value sampai suhu awal adalah 11 menit. Sistem kontrol yang digunakan untuk menstabilkan adalah kontroler PID (Proporsional, Integral Diferensial) yang dioperasikan secara cascade. Salah satu keuntungannya, sistem kontrol PID menggunakan sistem cascade lebih cepat dalam mengambil sebuah keputusan dan mudah dalam analisis. Dengan metode auto-tuning, maka pencarian parameter Kp, Ki dan Kd dapat lebih cepat dan tepat.

This study focused on investigating the viability of replacing an electric instant shower system at a hotel located in Thika with a passive solar water heating system. The study involved quantifying the average daily hot shower water consumption per room at the hotel in order to choose an appropriate size of solar water heater. To quantify the shower water, a flow meter was installed on the shower line just before the instant shower head in the hotel room. At the same time, an electricity meter was installed on the same shower to quantify the consumption of electricity for every shower session. A digital thermometer was then fixed at the shower head to monitor the temperature of the exiting water. Measurements from this set up were recorded for a period of 30 days from 1 st February 2015 to 2 nd March 2015. The study found the average shower water consumption per room per day to be 47.17 liters and the average water temperature from the instant electric shower to be 39.8ºC. Further, the average electricity consumption per shower was found to be 0.75kWh per room per day. Thereafter, a solar water heating system was installed at the roof top of the hotel and connected to the hotel room. The instant shower unit was then isolated and the use of the solar water heater commenced. Digital thermometers were then used to measure the temperatures of the hot water from the solar water heater at V the roof tank storage and at the exit of the shower head at the following intervals 0900hrs, 1200hrs, 1500hrs and 1800hrs for a period of 30 days from 11 th March 2015 to 9 th April 2015. The average water temperatures from the Solar Water Heater (SWH) at the roof tank storage at 0900hrs, 1200hrs, 1500hrs and 1800hrs were 28.1ºC, 44.1ºC, 49.2ºC and 32.6ºC respectively. On the other hand, the average water temperatures from the SWH at the showerhead of the hotel room at 0900hrs, 1200hrs, 1500hrs and 1800hrs were 26.9ºC, 42.2ºC, 47.1ºC and 31.2ºC respectively. Supplemental heating would thus be required for the shower water at 0900hrs and 1800hrs. The average supplementary heating required at 0900hrs would have been 0.71kWh per room per day while at 1800hrs it would have been 0.47kWh per room per day. The calculated payback period for the use of the SWH in heating shower water was 6.5years. TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION .

Pengujian karakteristik sistem preparation tank pada miniplant DCS Centum VP dilakukan dengan tujuan dapat menentukan karakteristik dari respons plant, flow dan field instrument pada sistem kendali preparation tank telah dilakukan. Pengujian dilakukan dengan menggunakan seluruh bagian pada miniplant, yaitu Engineering Work Station, Human Interface Station, Field Control Station, Junction Box dan Plant. Hasil penelitian ini diharapkan dapat dimanfaatkan oleh mahasiswa STTN sebagai dasar pengembangan otomasi miniplant dan pustaka dalam pembelajaran dan penggunaan DCS miniplant STTN-BATAN. Penentuan karakteristik dilakukan dengan menguji respons dari sistem kendali dan kerja final control element. kemudian hasil dari pengujian dilakukan dengan analisis regresi linear untuk mengetahui keterkaitan nilai dari parameter-parameter yang diuji. Hasil dari pengujian diperoleh bahwa seluruh Final control element bekerja secara linear dan karakteristik flow pada valve terjadi perubahan sesuai dengan installed karakteristiknya, kemudian pada respons sistem kendali, settling time dari sistem adalah 1 menit 22 detik, respons tidak menimbulkan overshoot dan error steady state berada dibawah 5%.

Electrostatic Precipitator (ESP) merupakan alat yang berfungsi untuk mengendalikan emisi gas buang yang mengandung partikel abu hasil pembakaran batu bara sebelum di buang ke atmosfir/udara, sehingga gas buang tidak mengandung partikel yang dapat mencemari lingkungan. Prinsip kerja ESP ini adalah dengan menangkap debu hasil pembakaran dengan cara memberikan tegangan listrik tinggi dc melalui elektroda bermuatan negatif sehingga debu-debu bermuatan negatif, selanjutnya debu-debu akan tertarik dan terikan pada plat pengumpul yang bermuatan positif  hal ini yang menghasilkan gas bersih yang keluar dari cerobong. Di PT.XYZ telah melakukan overhaul pada sistem kontrol heater insulator dan motor rapping ESP, telah dilakukan penggantian pada perangkat yang rusak dan PLC yang sudah discontinue. Hal ini yang mendasari untuk dilakukannya  penelitian ini yaitu “Analisa Sistem Kontrol Electrostatic Precipitator Menggunakan PLC Modicon TM221”. Hasil pengujian error timer  pada kontrol motor rapping sebesar 0,45% pada pengujian error siklus pertama, 0.5% pada pengujian siklus kedua, dan 0.57% pada pengujian siklus ketiga. Pada pengujian heater rata-rata duty cycle heater chamber 4 adalah sebesar 38,8%,  rata-rata duty cyle dari heater chamber 5 sebesar 6%, hal ini menunjukan kondisi abnormal karena persentase duty cycle yang kecil. Rata-rata duty cycle heater chamber 6 adalah sebesar 24,9%.

In St. Catharine's chapel in Lemiers, The Netherlands, wall paintings are deteriorating for years. During the past years the condition of the wall paintings has worsened even more. The paintings have started to crack and peel off more and more from their background. There were some indications that lead to expected high groundwater levels due to a nearby lying Selzer creek and its flooding. A result was a flooded crypt underneath the chapel. In the past two years several climate conditions in and around the chapel have been measured. The performed measurements had various objectives: one is to get insight in the current indoor and outdoor climate conditions in relation to the deterioration of the wall paintings; second objective is to provide data for validation of a simulation model. The chapel had been modelled with a multi-zone model, which is a simulation model for heat and vapour flows in a building. Based on this first model no direct indication was found what might have caused the damaged wall paintings. Therefore a second model was constructed with COMSOL. Based on the earlier taken measurements in groundwater levels it is assumed that the foundation is nearly always in contact with water, because the groundwater levels averagely vary around 75 centimetres below field. From there on, the further course of rising moisture was investigated. The results show that rising moisture nearly always takes place and is also depending on the amount of evaporation at the inner and outer surface. Solutions to prevent rising moisture are costly and mostly rigorous. Impregnation of the foundation is a possibility. The capillaries of the marlstone wall are then injected with a chemical fluid to prevent moisture to rise up in the wall.

1. Introduction
The issue of climate comfort and urban locations is one of the fundamental issues of sustainable development. Due to not using the climate principles such as solar radiation in building establishments and passages, energy consumption has increased to adjust the temperature and led to the reduction of the presence of people in open spaces. This is particularly true for cities such as Mashhad with cold climate which is of a special significance.
2. Theoretical Framework
Climate design can be considered as one of the branches of applied climatology. By it, making changes in the physical environment can create comfort condition through changing the climatic elements of any location. Creating comfort conditions is the establishment of thermal balance between the body and the surrounding environment and making climate adaptation is essential for this goal. For this purpose, it is necessary to recognize the comfort zone first. One of the effective factors on providing climate comfort is controlling the amount of energy received during cold and hot periods. Accordingly, scientific methods, including the method used in this research should be used to design houses and passages compatible with the climate. Making such a process while providing comfort will save expenditure and is a long step towards sustainable development.
3. Methodology
To achieve the aim of this research, with the use of synoptic meteorological station data like temperature, relative humidity, cloudiness of the sky, and wind speed in Mashhad during a period of 30 years and with the use of two thermal indices of PET and PMV, Rayman software model, and also setting of the frequency distribution table, the climate prevailing tension was determined. Heat Indices calculation measures comfort situation and prevailing stress conditions of temperature, but it is not applied to determine the amount of energy in each of the directions by vertical surfaces. So, to determine this, the computational approach of the Law of Cosines was used. In this way, using the relevant formulas and transfering them to the tables, the amount of energy received in each month for 24 of the geographical direction was determined. Then using the effective temperature chart and determining the temperature of 21 degree, the cold and warm periods of Mashhad in the whole year was obtained. Then, in order to understand more easily the radiation values in different directions for hot and cold periods in separation, the radiation values chart was drawn on different directions of buildings over the year. Considering that the aim of this study was to determine the best direction for the establishment of buildings and streets, the difference between cold and warm periods was calculated based on BTU/h/ft2 in a table. This makes it easier to prioritize the main facade of the buildings direction to get more radiation during the period of cold and less during the period of warm. With regard to the mentioned priorities, the chart of determining the best direction for the establishment of buildings was drawn. Finally, one part of the city map was introduced as a pattern consistent with the research results.
4. Results and Discussion
Based on the output of the calculation of PET and PMV indices, all tension classes with the exception of extreme heat stress can be seen during the year in Mashhad. On the basis of calculated thermal indices, in 55% of cases and more in the city of Mashhad, the dominant tension is the type of cold. A review of the findings of the calculations table, related to the amount of real incoming energy, showed that the month of September receives utmost energy 13320 BTU throughout the year. However, due to the lack of uniformity in energy received over the years, the volume of energy received cannot be considered as a criterion in the orientation of buildings and streets. Hence, the distribution of energy over the year will be the real criterion for the decision. On the basis of the studies of the calculated tables, the highest and the lowest amount of energy during the cold period belong to directions of +150 and -15 and warm to -105 and north. In spite of this, considering that the best direction is to get the minimum energy in times of hot and maximum in cold situation, according to the difference between the hot and cold periods in any of the directions, the most suitable direction for the establishment of the main facade of buildings is south east. Because, despite receiving less energy in cold periods relative to the direction of +150, less energy is received with respect to the same direction in the warm time. For the next priorities, +120 and +150 degrees can also be taken into consideration. Therefore, the best stretch for the streets will be northeast and southwest and in the next priorities it will be the azimuth degrees of 30 -210 and 60 -240. In the end, after reviewing the current state of the city map, among the 5 selected polygons A, B, C, D, and E, case A was introduced as a pattern compatible with the results of the research based on its proximity to the optimal state.
5. Conclusion and Suggestions
The calculation of heat indices PMV and PET showed that the city of Mashhad is placed in the range of cold stress. Thus, to adapt to such a situation and achieve the desired goals, especially its application in building design, by using the Law of Cosines, it was determined that south east is the best direction for one-sided buildings, and the best elongation is north east to the south west. Also, studying the urban map and comparing it with the optimal pattern of this study showed that the new and old textures of this city do not follow its radiant optimal climate conditions. Therefore, it is suggested that the results of this research be considered in the orientation of buildings and the elongation of streets and passages in new designs and rebuilding the old urban texture.

This study examines vacuum cooling as an efficient thermodynamic process for rapid temperature reduction by creating low-pressure environments. Experimental analyses focused on mass and energy balances in water systems, with data collected under isobaric conditions. The research highlights the advantages and limitations of vacuum cooling, exploring its application in food preservation, pharmaceuticals, and industrial cooling systems. Insights into energy efficiency, operational costs, and system optimization were also discussed, emphasizing its industrial relevance.

The adoption of key directives by the EU Commission for reaching the ambitious energy and climate targets by 2050 and to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 55% by 2030, allowed to an increasingly use of renewable energies in the last years. In this framework, sharing of renewable energies through energy communities plays an important role in fastest reaching the energy transition. Renewable Energy Communities (RECs) aim to generate, distribute, share and consume renewable energies collectively. This work deals with the identification of the areas where RECs are more suitable in Italy through the use of an energy platform. This platform monitors actual energy consumption and production but also the territorial constraints and the availability to exploit all the renewable resources still available. A focus on the use of geothermal energy, which could be used to share both thermal energy and electricity within RECs, is presented. Areas with the greatest geothermal potential have been shown, explaining also how geothermal energy can be exploited through specific technologies. Considerations on how it is the social perception in using geothermal energy and why it is not still use as it should be, have been also introduced.

Bu calismada, Turkiye’nin farkli iklim bolgeleri ve rakimlarda bulunan illerde(Erzurum ve Antalya) insa edilen ideal binalar Cevre ve Şehircilik Bakanligi tarafindan gelistirilen BEP-TR (Bina Enerji Performansi) Programi ile binalarin enerji kimlik belgesi ve enerji performans degeri acilarindan degerlendirilmistir. BEP-TR Programi'na bina geometrisi, mekanik, aydinlatma, isitma, ve havalandirma teknik degerleri gibi binalara ait proje verileri girilmistir. Bu veriler isiginda binanin isitilmasi ve sogutulmasi icin ihtiyac duyulan net enerji miktari, binada gunisiginin etkileri ve gunisigindan yararlanilmayan sure goz onunde bulundurularak aydinlatma icin gereken enerji ihtiyaci ve tuketimi hesaplanmistir. Ayrica, binaya ait sera gazi emisyonu da tespit edilmistir. Binalarin enerji performans degeri Erzurum icin C, Antalya icin ise D sinifi olarak tespit edilmistir.

Smarthome is made to help relieve human work in the field of automation in residential environments. The purpose of this system is to control the lamps, curtains, and fence doors, which are equipped with the HMI (Human Machine Interface) to display the process in real time. The system of this smarthome is made using Schneider TM221CE24R PLC as a controller. This smarthome controls the lamp with five different lighting brightness conditions by using a UV (Ultraviolet) sensor, controlling the open and close fence doors using the PIR (Passive Infrared) sensor, and controlling the curtains with three different conditions (open full, half closed, full lid) with the LDR sensor. The control of these Smarthome objects is displayed in an HMI (Human Machine Interface). The Operator can monitor the objects that are currently working through the HMI view. Through the testing stage of the tool, there is a conclusion that this smarthome can control objects well.

هدیکچ ریثأت تارییغت بآ ییاوهو یژرنا یاضاقت رب شیامرگ زاین یارب نامتخاس اه یرما غ ی لباقر بانتجا دهاوخ دوب ؛ تسا هتسیاب اذل هب پ ی ش ب ی ن ی بآ اوهو ی و قابطنا ،هعسوت هنیمز ات دوش هتخادرپ هدنیآ ژتارتسا ی اه ی شهوژپ نیا رد .ددرگ مهارف یژرنا بسانم هب روظنم یشیامرگ زاین یامنرود رب یفارگوپوت شقن یبایزرا زا ناریا هداد اه ی هنازور یامد لدم EH5OM هرود یط کنلاپ سکام هسسوم رامآ ی ( 2050 2015 ،)یدلایم تحت ویرانس A1B اب کیکفت 75 / 1 هجرد ناریا هرتسگ یارب ،یسوق دیدرگ یریگراب . ماگ رد یدعب هداد اه ی یناکم کیکفت اب هدربمان 27 / 0 × 27 / 0 لدم طسوت یسوق ( RegCM4 ) .دندش سایقمزیر شور زا هدافتسا اب سپس مز نی گنیجیرک رامآ هداد اه ی رد ییامد هنازور هنهپ ا داعبا هب ی 15 × 15 رتمولیک داعبا هب یسیرتام نآ هجیتن هک دش هدینارتسگ ناریا رب 7200 × 13140 هب تسد هدمآ روشک یشیامرگ زاین و لدم زا هدافتسا اب سیرتام نیا یور رب یتآ هرود یارب UKMO هک تسا هداد ناشن جیاتن .دیدرگ هبساحم یاراد ناریا رد یشیامرگ زاین یوگلا هشوخ ا ی لااب م ی دشاب یجنساو . لدم اه ی کیسلاک ینویسرگر ( OLS ) و نزو راد ییایفارغج ( GWR ) د هک داد نا...

The numerical study of natural convection in a square porous cavity saturated by a Newtonian fluid is presented in this study. The vertical walls are subjected to temperatures varying sinusoidally in time and phase opposition while the upper and lower horizontal walls are thermally adiabatic. Darcy model is used, it is also assumed the fluid studied is incompressible and obeys the Boussinesq approximation. The focus is on the effect of the modulation frequency (10 ≤ ω ≤ 100) and the Rayleigh number (10 ≤ Ra ≤ 1000) on the structure of the flow and transfer thermal. The results show that the extremal stream functions (ψ max and ψ min), the average Nusselt number at the hot (T c) and cold (T f) walls respectively Nucmoy and Nufmoy are periodic and periods equal to that excitatory temperatures to the range of parameters considered in this study. The results show also that oscillatory heating causes the appearance of secondary flow, whose amplification depends on the frequency of modulation of the imposed temperature. The results are shown in terms of streamlines and isotherms during a flow cycle.

DOI to the publisher's website. • The final author version and the galley proof are versions of the publication after peer review. • The final published version features the final layout of the paper including the volume, issue and page numbers. Link to publication General rights Copyright and moral rights for the publications made accessible in the public portal are retained by the authors and/or other copyright owners and it is a condition of accessing publications that users recognise and abide by the legal requirements associated with these rights. • Users may download and print one copy of any publication from the public portal for the purpose of private study or research. • You may not further distribute the material or use it for any profit-making activity or commercial gain • You may freely distribute the URL identifying the publication in the public portal. If the publication is distributed under the terms of Article 25fa of the Dutch Copyright Act, indicated by the "Taverne" license above, please follow below link for the End User Agreement:

First step in designing smart homes is energy efficiency analysis including energy optimization and consumption analysis. This paper incorporates the uncertainty of the effective parameters and probabilistically optimizes the energy consumption in a building. To this end, probability density functions (PDFs) of building uncertain parameters are modeled by point estimate method and the energy usage in buildings is optimized. EnergyPlus and MATLAB software are respectively used to compute the energy consumption in a building and to optimize the energy consumption. Energy consumption of the building and the thermal comfort are considered as objective functions of the proposed multi-objective optimization problem. The 12-story commercial building is used as a case study. To assess the proposed method, the proposed probabilistic method is compared with the deterministic method. The results show a significant difference between the deterministic and probabilistic cases. The maximum differ...

In cold climate countries like the Russian Federation, heating systems are essential during the cold winter, autumn and spring seasons. This creates big opportunities for conventional heating, leading to a significant increase in greenhouse gas emissions. Our studies showed that natural gas is the main source of heating in Russia with a little over 75% of the citizens' dependent on it. Burning of natural gas, produces CO2, contributing markedly to greenhouse gas emissions from the housing sector. Furthermore, 40% of electricity generation comes from coalfired power plants emitting methane (CH4), and Nitrous Oxide (N2O). The categories of buildings: are singlefamily, multi-family, and commercial and public buildings. Existing building consumes the highest amount of energy (220kwh/m2/year), new buildings consume less energy (70kwh/m2/year), and advanced new and advanced retrofitted buildings consume very little energy (20kwh/m2/year). The common heating system in Russia includes; centralized heating systems (CHS), district heating systems (DHS), and individual heating systems (HIS). Thermal power plants are used in large cities, boilers, in countryside homes, and furnace heating in the villages. The housing sector is looking towards modernizing buildings with green and sustainable materials that will not only conserve energy but also reduce carbon footprints and greenhouse gas emissions.

Within the framework of HYBUILD, an EU Horizon 2020-funded project, two innovative compact hybrid electrical/thermal storage systems for stand-alone and district connected residential buildings will be developed and tested in three demos located in Spain, France, and Cyprus. One of the innovative systems is aimed to be placed in buildings located in Mediterranean climate regions, where cooling loads are dominant, while the other system is intended for Continental climate regions, where the heating demand is dominant. Each system will include, among others components such as a sorption storage system and domestic hot water tanks, a latent thermal energy storage (LTES) system that will be connected to a heat pump through an innovative heat exchanger made of aluminium and filled with phase change material (PCM). In both cases, the heat pump works with electricity provided by a photovoltaic system that is, at the same time, connected to an electrical storage battery. The aim of using the LTES system is to enhance the use of solar energy, which will be translated into a reduction of the building energy consumption and related costs. This study focuses on the selection of the most suitable PCM to be used in each system. On the one hand, the LTES system of the Mediterranean system will be used to store cold to reduce the cooling demand. Taking into account that, according to the design parameters, the heat pump will require a refrigerant evaporation temperature around 2 ºC, and the building cooling system will require water supply in the range from 7 ºC to 12 ºC, the PCM melting temperature range should be within 0 ºC and 7 ºC. On the other hand, the LTES system of the Continental system will be used to store heat to reduce the domestic hot water (DHW) demand. The LTES will be located at the compressor outlet and will be charged by the hot refrigerant that exits the compressor at temperatures as high as 120 ºC. During the discharge process, the heat stored in the LTES will be supplied to the DHW at a temperature in the range between 50 ºC to 55 ºC. As a consequence, the range for the PCM melting temperature investigated in this case should be between 62 ºC and 68 ºC. Besides the melting temperature, other selection criteria considered include the PCM melting enthalpy and melting range, maximum allowed working temperature, density, thermal conductivity, availability, cost, and compatibility with aluminium. To decide the ideal PCM candidate for each system, a decision matrix was defined and used, by applying a weighted score to the selection criteria items according to their importance. The preliminary results indicate that for the Mediterranean system the best candidate is the commercial savE OM3 PCM, while for the Continental system, another commercial product PureTemp 63 is the most adequate option.

Introduction to Solar Absorption Cooling Systems This research focuses on the theoretical concepts of absorption chillers and solar thermal systems, evaluating how solar energy can supply the thermal energy needed for absorption chillers. The study explores various types of solar collectors, including flat-plate collectors, evacuated-tube collectors, and parabolic trough collectors, each suitable for providing energy to single-effect and double-effect absorption chillers. The investigation identifies the calculations and equipment required for solar cooling systems, including the energy demands, collector sizing, and the performance metrics in BTU/hr. As a result, a simplified table has been developed to facilitate the preliminary sizing of solar cooling systems based on project area (in square meters). This table can help determine the appropriate number and type of solar collectors needed, depending on the absorption chiller configuration and the specific cooling requirements of a project.

The design and optimization of ground source heat pump systems require the ability to accurately reproduce the dynamic thermal behavior of the system on a short-term basis, specially in a system control perspective. In this context, modelling borehole heat exchangers (BHEs) is one of the most relevant and difficult tasks. Developing a model that is able to accurately reproduce the instantaneous response of a BHE while keeping a good agreement on a long-term basis is not straightforward. Thus, decoupling the short-term and long-term behavior will ease the design of a fast shortterm focused model. This work presents a short-term BHE dynamic model, called Borehole-to-Ground (B2G), which is based on the thermal network approach, combined with a vertical discretization of the borehole. The proposed model has been validated against experimental data from a real borehole located in Stockholm, Sweden. Validation results prove the ability of the model to reproduce the short-term behavior of the borehole with an accurate prediction of the outlet fluid temperature, as well as the internal temperature profile along the U-tube.

Rond 1530 werd er aan de Utrechtse Sint-Salvatorkerk een aanbouw gerealiseerd die bekend staat als warmhuis. In het gebouw konden de kapittelkapelaans tussen de liturgische bedrijven door even bijkomen. Vooral in de winter zal de kerk een koude bedoening zijn geweest. Er was hier immers geen enkele vorm verwarming. De vele kaarsen die in het kader van de liturgie werden gebrand, zullen het oeroude godshuis eerder zwart gekleurd hebben dan opgewarmd. De diensten die door de kapelaans op de diverse altaren moesten worden gelezen, zullen in perioden van koude een verkleumende bezigheid zijn geweest.

In cold climate countries like the Russian Federation, heating systems are essential during the cold winter, autumn and spring seasons. This creates big opportunities for conventional heating, leading to a significant increase in greenhouse gas emissions. Our studies showed that natural gas is the main source of heating in Russia with a little over 75% of the citizens' dependent on it. Burning of natural gas, produces CO2, contributing markedly to greenhouse gas emissions from the housing sector. Furthermore, 40% of electricity generation comes from coalfired power plants emitting methane (CH4), and Nitrous Oxide (N2O). The categories of buildings: are singlefamily, multi-family, and commercial and public buildings. Existing building consumes the highest amount of energy (220kwh/m2/year), new buildings consume less energy (70kwh/m2/year), and advanced new and advanced retrofitted buildings consume very little energy (20kwh/m2/year). The common heating system in Russia includes; centralized heating systems (CHS), district heating systems (DHS), and individual heating systems (HIS). Thermal power plants are used in large cities, boilers, in countryside homes, and furnace heating in the villages. The housing sector is looking towards modernizing buildings with green and sustainable materials that will not only conserve energy but also reduce carbon footprints and greenhouse gas emissions.

Mixing material manually with some material composition is applied to the packaging industry is currently considered to be less efficient because it takes a long time and low accuracy. In its application at PT. Lautan Luas Surabaya, has designed control systems that control the process of blending material between multiple silos into a container vessel. The design of the plant is done by using a microcontroller as the main controller. The use of microcontroller has the disadvantage of not immune to interference so the microcontroller often experience a reset condition and hampered the process of filling material. In this study designed a data acquisition system simulator scales at mixing plant simulator that simulates material ASCII output of an indicator of the scales to be input to the PLC utilizes RS-232 serial port. Simulator scales represent ASCII output of the indicator scales used. The use of PLC has reasons that PLC is a controller designed specifically for the industry and immune to interference. Utilization of RS-232 serial port has a reason for the limitations of even the absence of an analog port on the PLC. From the test results showed that the data acquisition system simulator scales can communicate properly with the PLC. It is marked by the successful control of material mixing system with PLC input data is the data frame of the simulator weighing scales.

The report presents the characteristics of the Walloon Church in Delft (Netherlands) and a description of constraints for the indoor climate, giving criteria for the indoor air temperature and relative humidity with the focus on the preservation of the monumental organ. The setpoint operation of the HVAC system is evaluated by simulation using MatLab, Comsol and Simulink models. The next main model components are presented and combined in a single integrated SimuLink model: 1) a HAMbase Simulink building model for simulating the indoor temperature and relative humidity, 2) a Comsol PDE model for simulating detailed dynamic moisture transport in the monumental wood (organ) and 3) a Simulink controller model. The building model is validated with measurements. The main advantage of the integrated model is that it directly simulates the impact of HVAC control setpoint strategies on the indoor climate and the organ. Two types of control strategies are discussed. The first type is a limited indoor air temperature changing rate. The second type is a limited indoor air relative humidity changing rate. Recommendations from international literature suggest that 1) a changing rate of 2 K/h will preserve the interior of churches and 2) a limited drying rate is important for the conservation of monumental wood. This preliminary study shows that a limitation of indoor air temperature changing rate of 2 K/h can reduce the peak drying rates by a factor 20 and a limitation of the relative humidity changing rate of 2 %/h can reduce the peak drying rates by a factor 50. The second strategy has the disadvantage that the heating time is not constant.ve easy to create EU maps using MatLab

A comfortable indoor environment is essential for the health, performance, and academic efficiency of students
in schools. The high amount of energy consumption to provide environmental comfort in Iran's educational buildings has
placed these buildings among the biggest consumers of the energy sector with energy consumption of more than 160
kilowatt hours per square meter, and the need to reduce energy consumption in this sector through solutions It is
necessary to be compatible with the environment. The purpose of this research is to reduce energy consumption and
provide comfortable conditions in educational buildings by making changes in the layering of building shell elements
including walls and light-transmitting walls as a static combination solution. The research method in this study is
quantitative and its modeling through the use of Design Builder software; to examine the existing situation and optimize
the energy of the building with variables such as; The type of thermal insulation, the thickness of the thermal insulation
of the walls, the layering of the insulation, the type and thickness of the glass, the gases between the walls, the thickness
of the walls were discussed. The results showed that in the studied building, the use of polyurethane insulation in the
innermost layer (behind the carpentry plaster) of the south and north classrooms with a thickness of 10 cm had the most
optimal performance. In the northern classroom, a double-paned light-transmitting wall with low-emissivity glass with a
thickness of 3 mm and a middle wall of 13 mm argon gas with a 28.40% reduction in energy consumption, and in the
southern classroom with windows with a triple-paned light-transmitting wall and normal glass. 3mm and 13mm of air
have the best performance among other configurations with a 23.04% reduction in energy consumption. Also, in the
calculation of the investment return time, it was found that glass wool insulation with an investment return time of 27.92
years is the most appropriate insulation option in terms of investment return.

The climatic adaptability of an ancient building's architecture can be studied by utilizing various scientific disciplines such as archaeology, architecture, geography, applied climatology, and paleoclimatology. By conducting studies on the religious complex of Nush-i Jan in the Malayer Plain, which dates to the Median Period, we can expand our understanding of the architectural practices during that era. This current research aims to address three main questions: 1) What were the physical components of Nush-i Jan complex that allowed it to adapt to the climatic conditions? 2) How effective were these components in addressing the aforementioned issue? And 3) What were the non-physical heating or cooling arrangements implemented in the complex? Through library and field methods, the essential data has been collected. The analysis was conducted using four software applications AutoCAD, Climate Consultant, Ecotect, and DesignBuilder in the energy and architecture domains. The information has been processed using a descriptive-analytical approach. The architectural components of the complex, such as its orientation towards the south with an east-west extension, high building density and height, narrow passages and courtyards, mud-brick walls, wooden beam roofs, entrance doors for most of the spaces, side windows in the eastern and southern walls, ventilators, counters at the entrances of most of the buildings, and two fireplaces in the guard room of the fort, play crucial roles in utilizing solar heat and minimizing the impact of cold winds. These elements ensure that the residents' heating needs are met from May to September and partially during other months, while also addressing cooling requirements on hot days. However, additional heating sources were necessary during most hours from October to May (3153 hours in total); in other words, heating production was needed. It is possible that non-physical heating methods, like the tramrails used in the Assyrian imperial palaces, were employed by the inhabitants. Finally, the complex's climatic adaptability to the Malayer Plain, along with appropriate heating and cooling strategies, have guaranteed the residents' thermal comfort.

Decarbonising heating and cooling systems, significant contributors to the EU's (European Union) energy consumption, is a complex and urgent matter. This article discusses the potential coupling of energy communities and district heating and cooling systems, particularly fourth-and fifth-generation models, in the local energy transition. The integration of new-generation district heating and cooling systems into renewable energy generation is crucial for sustainability, circular economy practices, and community-based solutions. An examination of the EU legal framework within the Fit-for-55 package elucidates how provisions from the new Energy Efficiency Directive and Renewable Energy Directive facilitate the implementation of energy communities in the heating and cooling sector. The existing enabling legislation underscores the suitability of energy communities for heating and cooling sector activities, acknowledging their transformative potential in advancing the energy transition and fostering community empowerment.

This paper reports a solar trigeneration system installed at the Solar Energy Experimental Plant owned by the Spanish National Research Council (CSIC), located in Arganda del Rey, 20km east from Madrid.The authors want to express their gratitude to the Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad of Spain for funding the research project ENE2010-20650-CO2-01

Pada industri proses, tuntutan untuk senantiasa mencapai produksi tinggi dengan efisien ternyata memiliki banyak permasalahan pada sulit dan rumitnya pengontrolan. Hal ini dikarenakan begitu beragamnya besaran fisis dengan karakteristik yang berbeda-beda dalam proses industri. Untuk itu perlu dibuat pemodelan proses yang dapat merepresentasikan proses yang sebenarnya sehingga dapat ditemukan strategi pengontrolan yang tepat. Untuk membuat real simulator yang dapat memodelkan proses yang sebenarnya dibutuhkan biaya yang cukup besar. Oleh karena itu, dibutuhkan simulator yang dapat dibuat dengan harga relatif murah, efisien,dan tidak memerlukan banyak tempat. Pada Tugas Akhir ini akan dirancang sebuah virtual plant Heat Recovery Steam Generator (HRSG). Virtual plant Heat Recovery Steam Generator (HRSG) tersebut juga akan dihubungkan oleh Distributed Control System (DCS). Metode yang digunakan untuk mengintegrasi beberapa perangkat lunak dalam simulator ini menggunakan OLE for Process Control (OPC). Dari hasil pengujian dan analisa dapat disimpulkan bahwa DCS dapat mengontrol virtual plant dengan baik, tetapi masih terdapat delay pada plant akibat respon DCS yang agak lama.

Thermally Active Building Systems (TABS) have received more attention in recent years, since they have a good potential for substituting fossil fuels for low exergy renewable resources like geothermal energy. In that regard, GEOTABS which is combination of geothermal energy, as geothermal heat pump, and TABS seems promising. However, TABS have some limitations and cannot compensate heat demand when intense differences happen in heat loads. Albeit, this problem can be solved by a fast secondary system assisting TABS in providing thermal comfort. Yet, there is no integrated method for sizing both systems. Conclusively, oversizing is probable and it will likely result in total rejection of GEOTABS in the predesign stage since it increases investment costs. This paper provides a method for an integrated sizing of the secondary system in GEOTABS buildings. In this method, the heat load will be divided into two parts, "baseload" and "residual load". TABS and secondary ...

GEOTABS, a combination of TABS with a geothermal heat pump, is a promising heating and cooling system for decreasing greenhouse gas emissions in the building sector. However, TABS has a time delay when transferring energy from the pipes to the room. So, when the heat demand changes fast, TABS cannot properly compensate the heat demand. In order to solve this problem and maintain thermal comfort in the room, the concept of hybridGEOTABS proposes using a fast secondary system to assist the TABS. Yet, there is no integrated method for sizing both systems in a hybridGEOTABS building, considering the interaction between the secondary system and GEOTABS. This study will provide an integrated sizing methodology for hybridGEOTABS buildings. To that purpose, in this paper the interaction between the secondary system and TABS is investigated for two different scenarios by using a preference factor between the TABS and the secondary system. The methodology starts from heat demand curves, an an...

In this study, we discuss about the energy saving in different type of building walls by using optimum insulation thickness with suitable insulation material. The energy saving is maintained by reducing the energy consumption in buildings. Heat losses from building envelope have a major share in waste of energy. So it is essential to save the energy by using optimum insulation thickness. The insulation thickness and energy savings are calculated by using Life-cycle cost analysis over life time of 10 years of the building. Using proper insulation in building is most effective way of energy saving in building walls. This paper provides an analysis for determining optimum insulation thickness for the different wall types; Brick, Concrete and Stone which are used in building construction in India. Extruded polystyrene (XPS) and Expanded polystyrene (EPS) are selected as insulation material. In this paper, heat load (loss of heat) is calculated by using Degree-Day method. As a result; th...

Over the last four years Beacon Pathway Ltd (Beacon) has been developing a Neighbourhood Sustainability Framework through which the sustainability of neighbourhoods can be assessed. In the development phase prototypes of the framework and tools have been tested. This has involved working with developers and local authorities. In doing so, opportunities to retrofit neighbourhoods for greater sustainability through active local partnerships have emerged. This paper reviews the way in which the prototype Neighbourhood Sustainability Framework and tools combined with some house level research into housing conditions opened up and assisted with opportunities for community development as well as improved environmental outcomes in a lower to middle income suburb in West Auckland at both the neighbourhood and house levels.

For promoting the diffusion of GSHP (Ground Source Heat Pumps) a tool for sizing these systems will be carried out in the H2020 research project named “Cheap GSHPs”. The paper presents the set up of a database with energy profile of a certain amount of buildings representative of the typology (single family houses, block of flats, office buildings) with different insulation levels and in different climatic conditions. Based on the weather analysis among European climatic files, twenty locations have been considered. For each location the overall energy and the mean hourly monthly energy profiles for heating and cooling (sensible and latent) have been calculated. Based on the results, the correlations with Degree Days (DD) for heating and cooling have been found in order to generalize the results to have pre-calculated profiles for sizing GSHP.

The global industrial development, the increasing demand for energy, the limited availability of resources for the future generations of fossil fuels, and the prevention of environmental damage caused by their burning have led to public concern. Increasing energy consumption by buildings has led the wider global attention to its social, environmental, and economic implications. In the present study, in order to reduce the power consumption of the summer, a solar vacuum tube-collecting system, with its high efficiency, with a hot water tank and an absorption refrigeration system in a 5-story residential building in In Tehran Capital of Iran, has been investigated. In addition, the results also indicate that the main source of exergy destruction is solar collectors. In the solar collector, we have 93.22% of the exergy destruction, which accounts for 92.8% of the total exergy cascade. In addition, 18.45% of the exergy destruction occurred in the generator, which was equivalent to 1.598...

Summers are getting hotter in Uzbekistan, with temperatures regularly hitting 50°C.
While this is great news for beach-goers and kids on
their six-week summer break, it isn’t ideal for our cars –
which can be affected by the heat.
Breakdown statistics show that there’s a 20% increase in roadside callouts when it’s hot, rising
to 30% in coastal areas. Cars are also 50% more likely
to overheat in warm weather, which is one of the leading
causes of breakdowns on Uzbekistan roads.

Over the past decade, the subject of building environment has become increasingly prominent in the conservation of wall paintings. The aim of this paper, originally presented to the EASA summer conference 2004, is to look at how environmental conditions cause deterioration, how these conditions can be investigated, and what methods can be used for their control. This is very much an overview, as each of the areas addressed is the subject of a large body of research in its own right. However, it is hoped that by drawing the various elements together, this will help with the co-operation between the conservator and the architect or surveyor, which is essential for any successful conservation programme. The history of conservation of wall paintings has been one of the treatment of damage rather than its prevention and even today much of the training in conservation is concentrated on how to repair damaged objects. The prevention of deterioration is often regarded as being of secondary ...

In Turkey the insulation of buildings was not a common occurrence until it became obligatory after the publication of the TS 825 Turkish Thermal Insulation Standard. However, most of the buildings still have little or no insulation. The aim of this study is to show the optimum insulation thicknesses for the different wall types; stone, brick and concrete, which are usually used in building construction in Turkey. Four cities from different climate zones, determined by the Turkish Thermal Insulation Standard (TS 825); Antalya (1st zone), _ Istanbul (2nd zone), Elazıg (3rd zone) and Kayseri (4th zone) were selected for analysis, and the optimum insulation thicknesses, energy savings and payback periods were calculated for each. Fiberglass, extruded polystyrene, expanded polystyrene and foamed polyurethane were the chosen insulation materials. The calculations were carried out with five different energy types; coal, LPG, electricity, fuel oil, and natural gas. As a consequence the results show that the optimum insulation thickness varies between 0.2 cm and 18.6 cm, energy savings vary between 0.038 $/m 2 and 250.415 $/m 2 , and payback periods vary between 0.714 and 9.104 years depending on the city, the type of wall, the insulation material and the cost of fuel.

The reduction of energy consumption and the increase in energy efficiency is currently an important cornerstone of EU policy. Energy performance certificates (EPCs) were implemented as one of the tools to promote this agenda, and are used for the energy performance assessment of buildings. In this study, the characteristics of the Portuguese dwelling stock are regionally analysed using data from approximately 523,000 Portuguese residential EPCs. Furthermore, a bottom-up building typology approach is used to assess the regional energy needs impact of retrofitting actions and to estimate the heating and cooling energy performance gaps of the whole dwelling stock, as well as the potential CO2 emissions resulting from the gaps’ potential offset due to increase thermal comfort. The results show that Portuguese residential buildings have very low energy performance, with windows and roofs being identified as the most energy inefficient elements. Roof retrofitting has the highest potential...

Article Info This paper proposes a temperature control system on a continuous stirred tank heater prototype using a PID controller. Input value parameters and system responses are displayed on a GUI (Graphical User Interface) connected to a computer (PC or Laptop) so that they can be monitored in real-time. The sensor used in the stirred tank heater consists of two LM35DZ temperature sensors. The results of the temperature sensor readings are entered into the data acquisition device (NI ELVIS II) as a data processing process which is then processed using LabVIEW and displayed on the GUI. The results of this study can provide a model of a continuous stirred tank heater temperature control system with a water room temperature range up to 45ºC using the parameters PI Kp = 83.2 Ti = 0.03, Td = 0.

In this study, ideal buildings located in different climate regions and different altitudes of Turkey (Erzurum and Antalya) have been investigated in terms of energy identity certificate and energy performance value by using BEP-TR software (Building Energy Performance) developed by Ministry of Environment and Urbanization. In this context, the project data of the buildings (building geometry, mechanical, lighting, heating and ventilation technical values) have been entered into the BEP-TR program. In the light of these data, the amount of net energy required for heating & cooling of the building, the energy requirement for lighting of the building by taking into account the effect of daylight on the building, and consumption of lighting for the areas where the daylight is not utilized have been calculated. The emissions of greenhouse gas from the building have also been determined. The energy performance of the buildings was determined as Class C for Erzurum and Class D for Antalya.

Best orientation determination of buildings in …; [Zheng, et al; 2010] Developing a fuzzy analytic hierarchical process model for … Aims & Backgrounds One of the approaches to reduce fossil fuel consumption and their pollution in cities, is to pay attention to the climatic conditions and ecosystems of the region and to use renewable energy in architecture and the design of buildings. This subject in the case for Tehran metropolis is more important, due to the high concentration of population and the activity and, consequently, the great amount of constructions. The aim of this research is to determine the optimal building orientations through surveying the amount of direct radiation energy, received by vertical surfaces of buildings in Tehran city. Methodology The research method is descriptive-analytical and quantitative computational models have been used. In order to achieve this goal, taking into account the azimuth and the height of the sun at different times of the year, the "Law of cosines" computational method and Q-BASIC software were applied to compute and analyze the amount of received direct energy on vertical surfaces of buildings in all months of the year and in 24 geographic directions. The most suitable direction for building orientation is determined through the maximum difference between the amount of energy in cold and hot periods or the highest percentage of radiation received in the cold period. Findings Based on the results of the research, the maximum annual amount of received solar energy in the city of Tehran belongs to the 150 degree SouthEast and West, and the lowest annual amount of energy is related to the walls facing the North; In order to get optimal solar energy, the directions of 150 degrees SouthEast to 210 degrees SouthWest are among the acceptable orientations (first to third priority). The best orientation for one-way buildings in Tehran is 180 degrees South. ConclusionThe best orientation for two-way buildings is the North-South direction and for four-sided buildings are (0, 180, 90,-90) degrees.

The present investigation aims to depict the effect of compression ratio on performance, emission and combustion characteristics of diesel-acetylene-fuelled stationary compression ignition engine. The optimum values for compression ratio, injection timing and injection pressure for diesel were experimentally found, and baseline data were established as 20, 23°before top dead centre and 210 bar, respectively. In order to investigate the effect of acetylene fuelling, acetylene gas was inducted at four different flow rates of 60, 120, 180 and 240 litres per hour at compression ratio 20. It was observed that the flow rate of 120 litres per hour gave the best performance with highest brake thermal efficiency of 25.09%. In order to find the optimum compression ratio for acetylene fuelling at 120 litres per hour, experimentation was done at different compression ratios of 18, 19, 20, 21 and 22. Experimental results showed that highest brake thermal efficiency of 25.72% was achieved at compression ratio 21 for dieselacetylene fuelling which was much higher than 23.32% for pure diesel. Carbon monoxide, hydrocarbon and smoke emissions were also measured and found to be lower, while the NOx emissions were higher at optimized values in dual-fuel mode as compared to those for pure diesel. Peak cylinder pressure and net heat release rate were also calculated and found to be higher in dual-fuel mode compared to diesel mode.

Cooling is needed to protect vulnerable populations from heatwaves, keep vaccines viable and food fresh, and workforces productive. It is essential for equity and development, especially as climate change raises global temperatures. There are an estimated 3.6 billion cooling appliances in use globally today, and that number is growing by up to 10 devices every second. This growth is set to increase the sector’s greenhouse gas emissions dramatically. Air conditioners are a double burden. In most cases, they use hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), extremely potent greenhouse gases, and require significant energy to run. Without policy intervention, direct and indirect emissions from air conditioning and refrigeration are projected to rise 90 per cent above 2017 levels by the year 2050. This report lays out ways to resolve this dilemma by delivering efficient and climate friendly cooling for all – in particular by rapidly phasing down hydrofluorocarbons in the cooling sector and delivering cool...