Descriptive Linguistics

In this paper, we investigate evolutionarily recent changes in the distributions of speech sounds in the world's languages. In particular, we explore the impact of language contact in the past two millennia on today's distributions. Based on three extensive databases of phonological inventories, we analyse the discrepancies between the distribution of speech sounds of ancient and reconstructed languages, on the one hand, and those in present-day languages, on the other. Furthermore, we analyse the degree to which the diffusion of speech sounds via language contact played a role in these discrepancies. We find evidence for substantive differences between ancient and present-day distributions, as well as for the important role of language contact in shaping these distributions over time. Moreover, our findings suggest that the distributions of speech sounds across geographic macro-areas were homogenized to an observable extent in recent millennia. Our findings suggest that what we call the Implicit Uniformitarian Hypothesis, at least with respect to the composition of phonological inventories, cannot be held uncritically. Linguists who would like to draw inferences about human language based on presentday cross-linguistic distributions must consider their theories in light of even short-term language evolution. This article is part of the theme issue 'Reconstructing prehistoric languages'.

Este trabajo explora las construcciones posesivas del mapuzugun desde la lingüística tipológica contemporánea. A partir de los datos recogidos y previa discusión bibliográfica, se establecen los esquemas posesivos prototípicos del mapuzugun y sus variaciones. Finalmente, se propone una clasificación tipológica de las construcciones de la lengua de acuerdo con la posesión nominal, predicativa y externa, concluyendo con algunas reflexiones generales sobre el fenómeno de la posesión en mapuzugun.

Leonard Bloomfield played a key role in the development of American structural linguistics in the second quarter of the 20th century, but his profound influence involved two ironies. The first one is that Bloomfield's “followers” were called Bloomfieldians despite the fact that they departed from some of his key views and the second one is that Bloomfield himself came to be associated with some post-Bloomfieldian positions which he did not share. This study aims to provide a faithful presentation of the most important aspects of Bloomfield's writings pertaining to general linguistics and to critically analyse and compare his opinions with those of some of his distinguished (near-)contemporaries. Some of the salient points that emerge from it are the definition of language as a system of signals in Bloomfield's Language, the ambiguity between the phoneme as a bundle of distinctive acoustic features and as a class of sounds sharing those features and the structure and nature of his model of language. In addition, it is shown that, although Bloomfield's objective was to describe languages independently of psychological factors as autonomous systems, he was not as psychologically naive as it has been claimed and that the widespread idea that behaviourism had considerable influence on his descriptive theory and practice is largely incorrect.

In 2013, Bago and Kusuntu language communities of Togo developed a shared orthography, but well-trained Kusuntu writers still struggle to mark tone consistently. This thesis constitutes the first Kusuntu tone description and seeks to inform the development of Kusuntu tone orthography. The mora is the tone bearing unit and can be H, L, or toneless. Speakers are additionally aware of a mid pitch, which is the surface realization of a downstepped H. The underlying tone patterns of verb roots are H, ∅, H∅ or ∅H, while noun roots are H, L, LH, or HL. Floating H and L tones mark verbal aspect. The Obligatory Contour Principle is in effect and violations are repaired in one of three ways, depending on the domain level where the violation occurs. The majority of nouns take a noun class suffix and end in a HL pattern.

Денес, колекцијата на черниговскиот Историски музеј „Василиј Василевич Тарновски“ – (Украина) вклучува околу 230 илјади предмети. Овие артефакти се претежно поврзани со историјата на Украина, но многу од нив потекнуваат од други земји или се тесно поврзани со нивната историја и припаѓале на истакнати историски личности. Меѓу нив, колекцијата на музејот го содржи Служебникот од 1658 година, чиј сопственик бил кратовскиот митрополит Михаил (Боичиќ). Во оваа богослужбена книга се сочувани белешки од неговите патувања, како и богослужбените текстови што ги додал во Служебникот (чин на хиротонија и хиротесија). Сочуваните записи се важен извор за истражувачите на неговата биографија, а може да бидат интересни и за литургичарите кои ги проучуваат промените во богослужбените редоследи.


На сьогоднішній день колекція Чернігівського історичного музею імені Василя Васильовича Тарновського налічує близько 230 тисяч предметів. Ці артефакти здебільшого пов'язані з історією України, але багато з них походять з інших країн або тісно пов'язані з їх історією, належали видатним історичним особистостям. Серед них у колекції музею зберігається Служебник 1658 року, власником якого був митрополит Кратовський Михаїл (Боїчич). У богослужбовій книзі збереглися його записи, що стосуються історії його подорожей, а також додані ним у Служебник літургійні тексти (чини хіротесій та хіротоній). Записи, що збереглися, є важливим джерелом для дослідників його біографії, а також можуть зацікавити літургістів, які вивчають зміни в богослужбових чинопослідуваннях.

These materials possess a general documentary-linguistic value; that is, they cannot be fully exploited for a theoretical-linguistic account of spatial language. Based on elicitation materials and pictures in Ela Filippone, Spatial models and locative expressions in Baluchi, 1996, Naples (Appendix A, pp. 361-392). This work has constituted, and continues to constitute-albeit with a focus restricted to Balochi-a reference work for the description of spatial language in the Iranian dialects.

Este artigo tem como objetivo descrever e analisar empréstimos linguísticos da Língua Portuguesa na língua xavante a partir de alguns dados levantados nas obras de Lachnitt (1987) e Hall et al. (2004 [1987]). Apresenta uma síntese sobre a história do contato entre o povo xavante (a'uwẽ uptabi) e a sociedade não indígena, e posteriormente sua localização e distribuição atual em terras indígenas no leste de Mato Grosso. Em seguida, discorre sobre aspectos teóricos relativos aos empréstimos linguísticos com base em Alves (2004) e Carvalho (2009). Realiza-se a descrição e análise dos dados dos empréstimos linguísticos, comparando suas ocorrências nas obras dos autores mencionados, dividindo-os por campos semânticos. Os resultados obtidos a partir da análise permitem observar os campos semânticos mais suscetíveis a adotarem empréstimos do português e relacionar algumas diferenças de registro em ambas as obras como possíveis variações dialetais da relação de contato dos xavantes com os não indígenas.

Поплавите во НР Македонија во 1962 година низ страниците на "Нова Македонија" 263 Марјан ГИЈОВСКИ Основањето на ВМРО-ДПМНЕ меѓу аргументите за континуитетот и политичките митови ИЗВОРИ И ДОКУМЕНТИ 285 Филип МАРКОВСКИ Константиновата даровница низ призмата на македонскиот превод 305 Даниела ТОШЕВА Предбрачниот подарок на Грегорија (Јустинијан, новела 2) 319 Никола ЌИРИЌ Прилог кон историјата на Охридската Архиепископија: две петиции од охридскиот архиепископ Јоасаф II од 1727 година до османлискиот Диван 333 Зеќир РАМЧИЛОВИЌ Просторот на денешна Македонија во книгата "Огледало на светот" од Ќатиб Челеби МЕТОДИКА И ДИДАКТИКА 349 Игор ЈАНЕВ -Борче МИЛОШЕСКИ Македонскиот револуционер Никола Карев во современата настава по историја во гимназиското образование КРИТИКА И БИБЛИОГРАФИЈА 357 Jovica GROZDANOVSKI Miltiades B. Hatzopoulos, Ancient Macedonia 363 Jovica GROZDANOVSKI Hasan Çolak & Elif Bayraktar-Tellan, The Orthodox Church as an Ottoman Institution 369 Љупка ХРИСТОВА Vinko Tadić, Sat povijesti i čas (h)istorije УДК: 911.3:94(497.7)"16"(093) Зеќир РАМЧИЛОВИЌ Институт за национална историја, Скопје

Objective: This study aimed to evaluate lenition, a phonological process involving consonant weakening, as a diagnostic marker for differentiating Parkinson's Disease (PD) from Atypical Parkinsonism (APD). Early diagnosis is critical for optimizing treatment outcomes, and lenition patterns in stop consonants may provide valuable insights into the distinct motor speech impairments associated with these conditions. Methods: Using Phonet, a machine learning model trained to detect phonological features, we analyzed the posterior probabilities of continuant and sonorant features from the speech of 142 participants (108 PD, 34 APD). Lenition was quantified based on deviations from expected values, and linear mixed-effects models were applied to compare phonological patterns between the two groups. Results: PD patients exhibited more stable articulatory patterns, particularly in preserving the contrast between voiced and voiceless stops. In contrast, APD patients showed greater lenition, particularly in voiceless stops, coupled with increased articulatory variability, reflecting a more generalized motor deficit. Conclusions: Lenition patterns, especially in voiceless stops, may serve as non-invasive markers for distinguishing PD from APD. These findings suggest potential applications in early diagnosis and tracking disease progression. Future research should expand the analysis to include a broader range of phonological features and contexts to improve diagnostic accuracy.

L’examen des genèses des paradigmes personnels du berbère
(cf. Allati, 2022) m’a conduit à leur reconstruction que j’ai menée dans
une perspective totalement différente. Pour ce faire, je me suis fondé sur les différents renseignements que nous disposons sur les stades antérieurs de cette langue (inscriptions libyques, données médiévales, vestiges de ses stades antérieurs conservés dans les berbères moderne et actuel) et sur les comparaisons avec les autres groupes afro-asiatiques.

Mot clés : berbère ; reconstruction ; conjugaisons ; personne ; stades ; 
diachronie ; vestiges, évolution

Penelitian ini berjudul "Alih Kode dalam Konten Vlog di Kanal YouTube Naura Ayu: Kajian Sosiolinguistik". Tujuan utama dari penelitian ini adalah untuk mendeskripsikan jenis alih kode serta fungsi alih kode dari ujaran Naura Ayu dalam konten vlog-nya yang berjudul "Bali Trip before my best friend leaves", "Japan Chronicles-part 1!! (flights)", "Japan Chronicles part 2-Disney Sea!", "Japan Chronicles part 3-Disneyland", dan "Failed Gala Yuzawa trip-Japan Chronicles part 4" yang ada di dalam kanal Naura Ayu. Penelitian ini menggunakan metode deskriptif kualitatif. Teori yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah teori jenis alih kode oleh Poplack (1980) dan teori fungsi alih kode oleh Appel dan Muysken (2005). Hasil dari analisis dalam penelitian ini menunjukkan bahwa terdapat dua jenis alih kode yang digunakan oleh Naura Ayu, yaitu jenis alih kode intrasentential switching dan intersentential switching. Selain itu, hasil dari analisis dalam penelitian ini juga menunjukkan bahwa terdapat empat fungsi alih kode yang digunakan oleh Naura Ayu, yaitu fungsi referential, expressive, directive, dan metalinguistic. Kemudian penelitian ini juga menunjukkan bahwa Naura Ayu sering menggunakan jenis alih kode intrasentential switching dan fungsi referential ketika menyampaikan informasi atau menjelaskan situasi tertentu.

The Tivoid subgroup of Bantoid presents an evolving numeral classifier system with restricted lexical coverage, as attested for a number of various subgroups of the Benue Congo languages of Nigeria and Camer-oon (Kießling 2018). Semantically, these classifiers categorise counted items for their shape and texture (e.g., oblong and rigid vs. flat vs. small and globular) as well as for their aggregation type (bundle vs. heap) and partition (half, piece) with an occasional conflation with the notion of counterexpectual scantiness. On the morphosyntactic and et-ymological level, they can be seen to develop from full-fledged generic nouns denoting concepts such as LEAF, SEED, FRUIT and HEAP used as head nouns in associative constructions. Eventual loss of nominal prop-erties indexes an incipient functional split of the lexical source item and the newly emergent word class of numeral classifier. A comparison of numeral classifier systems in two Tivoid varieties, i.e. Tiv (Angitso 2020) and Ugare (Angitso & Kießling 2021), reveals both substantial overlap and variation. For example, cognate classifiers such as Tiv ítíné(5/6) and Ugare íʧín (5/6), both used for counting longish outgrowths from a base and applicable to items like plantains and hair, allow for a Proto-Tivoid reconstruction, whereas non-cognates such as Tiv ì-ké (9/6) ‘testicle’ vs. Ugare kù-kwà (9/10) ‘palm nut’, both used for counting items such as mangos and cashews, attest to the application of different cog-nitive models. Based on a comparison of the Tiv classifier system and its Ugare counterpart, the contribution explores the extent to which a numeral classifier system can be reconstructed for the Proto-Tivoid stage.

The devoicing and deletion of unstressed vowels are common processes that may be viewed as stages in a gradual process of elision. This paper examines the sociolinguistic conditioning of variable final vowel devoicing and deletion in the Portuguese spoken in the city of São Paulo (SP), Brazil. From sociolinguistic interviews with 46 speakers, we extracted and coded 5,413 tokens for their acoustic realisation and for a series of factors: speaker sex, age, level of education and neighbourhood, the vowel and its surrounding phonetic context. Logistic regression analysis shows that both devoicing and deletion are socially stratified and preferred with high vowels and preceding voiceless segments. While the linguistic effects reflect articulatory and perceptual considerations, social stratification reveals some of the social affect that these features provide in SP. Comparison of regression analyses suggests that the two processes are unrelated.

The present contribution is concerned with an area of grammar – that of modal verbs – which has shown and still shows a degree of variation across different forms of the English language. Modals are a subset of verbs which carry out specific functions in grammar (Palmer 1986, Depraetere and Reed 2006, Depraetere and Verhulst 2006; Leech 2003) and whose forms reflect an older state of the language which is fragmentary and incomplete today and has been for some considerable length of time, although more conservative Germanic languages, mainly German, still have a paradigmatically regular set of modals. Formally, many of the English modals are derived from a group of verbs, called preterite-present verbs, which in the Germanic languages are distinguishable by the use of a preterite in the present tense (on the historical background to modals, see Krug 2000). To this group belong verbs such as should, would, ought, might, must which do not take a present-tense inflectional -s given thei...

И покрај тоа што македонскиот народ се крена во 1903 година за да се бори за својата слобода и да создаде независна македонска држава, само десет години подоцна, Македонија беше брутално нападната, окупирана и поделена од нејзините соседи Грција, Србија и Бугарија; поделба потврдена од европските големи сили на 10 август 1913 година со Букурешкиот договор. Зошто се случи ова? Кои беа факторите што доведоа до тоа? И кој сакаше ова да се случи? Во минатото пишував статии каде што ги разгледувавме настаните и како тие се одвиваа. Денес, во оваа статија, покрај тоа што ќе разгледаме "како" се одвиваа настаните, ќе разгледаме и "зошто" се одвиваа настаните, "кој" стоеше зад нив и "кои" беа нивните цели. Ќе разгледаме голем број настани по хронолошки редослед, имајќи предвид како сето ова се вклопува во пошироката слика. Она што ќе го кажам денес, за некои, ќе биде ново, необично и веројатно никогаш порано не слушнато. Сега да ја разгледаме "темата" на овој напис -зборот "окупација". Што значи тој и како се однесува на Македонија. Според Оксфордскиот речник на современ англиски јазик, окупација во оваа смисла значи: "Да се биде окупиран од вооружени сили на друга земја..." Па, вооружените сили што припаѓаат на Грција, Србија и Бугарија ја нападнале и ја окупирале Македонија во октомври 1912 година и оттогаш се таму. Тоа е, до 1991 година, кога српската армија го напуштила српско окупираниот дел од Македонија и тој дел станал независна Република Македонија. За жал, деловите од Македонија доделени на Грција, Бугарија и Албанија се уште се окупирани до ден-денес.

Dedicated to my distinguished and esteemed colleague,  Dr. Thomas Jügel

It was a fortunate coincidence that the narrator—an elderly man, the very same who once recounted to me the epic saga of the love story between Heydarbeg and Samambar (see below: A Wandering Love Story in Southern Iran)—spontaneously decided to narrate this extraordinary testimony of cultural stratification, which would almost certainly have been lost within a very short time. The narration took place at a moment when my proficiency in Minabi had reached a level that allowed me to follow the account with full understanding.

It is worth noting, however, that the narrator—an expert bearer of ancient cultural traditions—was never interrupted by me or my companion. As in the case of Heydarbeg and Samambar, the transcription, translation, and extensive annotation of the recording proved to be a demanding task, carried out for many days, interrupted only by brief pauses and the night.

This is what makes the difference between fieldwork conducted in places where, for many natural reasons, there is little or no historical depth or cultural layering, and fieldwork in regions like Iran, and especially the much-neglected South. With a text like this, one can work for years and travel back more than 2,000 years. It is a truly marvelous thing.

This paper presents an analysis of the main morphological structures and morphosyntactic patterns of Minābi, the dialect spoken in Mināb town and the surrounding villages inland from the Strait of Hormuz in Iran. Traditionally, Minābi is classified as a Southwestern Iranian dialect and forms part of the far-flung and under-documented Garmsiri dialect continuum, which stretches across the provinces of Kermān, Hormozgān, and Fārs. The study provides grammatical information on all parts of speech, supplemented by language data drawn from oral texts. The approach is descriptive and non-theoretical, with no specific focus on the analysis of syntactic structures.

Apstrakt Rad ispituje aktuelna sociolingvistička pitanja u Americi. Aktuelna sociolingvistička pitanja u Americi obuhvataju varijante engleskog jezika koji se govori u Sjedinjenim Državama, obuhvataju domaće varijante govornika i uključuju etničke varijante poput Afroameričkog engleskog jezika kao i engleski jezik američkih starosedelaca i američkog slenga. Istorijski gledano, korene američkog engleskog jezika pronalazimo kod engleskih doseljenika iz sedamnaestog veka sa istočne obale. Prvi koji su izvršili formativni uticaj na američki engleski jezik su Škoti iz Alstera i njihov govor koji ima direktan nastavak uticaja na apalački engleski jezik. Kasnije će i veći broj drugih evropskih nacionalnosti koji su kroz svoju istoriju emigrirali u Americi, kao što su Nemci, Skandinavci, Holanđani, Francuzi, Poljaci i Italijani doprineti razvoju engleskog jezika u Americi. Ključne reči: Sociolingvistika, Aktuelna sociolingvistička pitanja u Americi, engleski jezik američkih starosedelaca i Afroamerikanaca, američki sleng.

This study examines the influence of theta roles and noun phrases (NPs) within the syntactic
structures of Nigerian newspapers by focusing on how these elements contribute to framing
news narratives and shaping public discourse. The objectives include identifying and
categorizing NPs in selected newspapers, assigning theta roles to each NP to understand their
semantic contribution and analysing the impact of these roles on narrative structure.
Additionally, the study quantifies the proportion of theta roles in shaping discourse and
explores their roles in emphasizing or downplaying narrative elements. Using a purposive
random sampling technique, five major Nigerian newspapers—Daily Trust, The Guardian,
Leadership, Premium Times, and Vanguard—were selected for analysis. The research draws
on theoretical insights from Chomsky, Haegeman, and Carnie, employing a descriptive survey
design with a qualitative approach. Through systematic content analysis, findings reveal that
the strategic use of theta roles in syntactic structures significantly influences how news stories
are framed, often guiding readers' perceptions by highlighting certain aspects over others.
These insights have implications for media literacy, as understanding the theta roles within
syntactic structures can help readers critically evaluate news narratives.

This study investigates predicate logical relations within selected Nigerian newspapers
using a lexico-semantic approach. The analysis focuses on how predicates, as
linguistic elements conveying action and states, establish logical connections within
texts. Understanding these relations is crucial for discourse analysis and
comprehension of the textual structure and semantic coherence in journalistic writing.
The research employs a qualitative methodology, specifically a lexico-semantic
framework, to systematically examine how predicates are utilized across a corpus of
Nigerian newspapers. Predicates are identified and categorized based on their semantic
roles and relationships within sentences and paragraphs. By doing so, the study aims
to uncover patterns and trends in how Nigerian newspapers construct meaning and
convey information through predicate logic. Furthermore, the study explores the
implications of these findings for both linguistic theory and journalistic practice. It
seeks to contribute to the growing body of research on discourse analysis within the
context of Nigerian media, offering insights into how predicate logical relations shape
the narrative and argumentation strategies employed by journalists. The findings
highlight the diversity and complexity of predicate usage across different newspapers,
reflecting variations in editorial style, audience engagement strategies, and rhetorical
purposes. Such insights not only enrich our understanding of journalistic discourse in
Nigeria but also provide a basis for comparative studies across different linguistic and
cultural contexts.

The article examines the phonology and phonetics of Setswana obstruents and the well known and controversial post-nasal devoicing rule, which has been cited as a counterexample to the claim that markedness constraints are phonetically grounded (Hyman 2001). We re-examine the case of Setswana and argue that it must be analyzed in terms of grounded constraints. Our evidence comes from two sources. First, we report on the results of a phonetic study of six speakers of the Sengwato dialect of Setswana. We found that some of our speakers did not have voiced obstruents in any context. Those speakers that did devoice post-nasally also devoiced in other contexts. Thus, a phonetic examination of the purported counterexample to phonetically grounded constraints fails to support the traditional descriptions. Second, we examine the larger phonological context in which the Setswana alternations occur. Setswana has a gapped system of laryngeal contrasts, so the evidence for post-nasal devoicing comes almost entirely from labial stops. The language also has a series of so-called strengthening alternations that affect consonants such as liquids and fricatives post-nasally-alternations that we propose to analyze in terms of the Syllable Contact Law.

Sources of general undergoer voice forms in Sulawesi

This study focuses on the emergence of general undergoer voice prefixes, such as *da-, *di-, and *ni-, in Central, Southern, and Southeastern Sulawesi languages. It builds on previous research by Smith and Erlewine (2024), which focused on voice systems in Central Bornean languages, and offers a similar description of voice systems in Sulawesi.
The undergoer voice prefixes in question include the prefixed form of the reflexes of the Proto-Malayo-Polynesian (PMP) locative case-marker *di, as in ri-anre ‘be eaten’ (uv-eat) in Buginese (South Sulawesic), the post-PMP third-person plural agentive prefix *da-, as in da-koni ‘be eaten’ (uv-eat) in Pamona (Kaili-Pamonic; Central Sulawesi), and an earlier prefix *ni-, as in ni-kanre ‘be eaten’ (uv-eat) in Makassarese (South Sulawesic). The last prefix may be traced back to the prefixed form ni- of the PMP realis infix *<in>, PMP genitive case-marker *ni, or the shortened form of the PMP instrumental case-marker *kani.
This study will examine the formal and systematic loss of the Philippine-type three undergoer voice affixes, that is, PMP *-en, *-an, and *i-, and reinterpretations of the non-voice grammatical items in various Sulawesi languages. This comprehensive approach will provide a deep understanding of the evolution of voice-marking systems in western Malayo-Polynesian languages in Island South East Asia and underscore the significance of grammatical changes in historical linguistics.

Reference
Smith, Alexander D. and Michael Yoshitaka Erlewine. 2024. Emergence of passive voice in Central Borneo. Paper presented at SLE 57.

Lekh Dothraki (Dothraki Language) is one of the constructed languages in the fictional world of Game of Thrones. Developed by David J. Peterson, it exhibits linguistic features that combine elements of natural languages with fictional creations. This study uses both descriptive and contrastive approaches. From a descriptive perspective, it analyzes the valential behaviors of Dothraki verbs in terms of argument number and valency alternation. As a result of these analyses, it reveals that Dothraki verbs govern one, two, or three arguments, mark these arguments with case inflection in the surface structure, and assign semantic functions to them in the deep structure. Regarding valency alternation, the language employs seven morphosyntactic techniques to retain (durativization, dynamicization, particle use, and reversivization), increase (causativization), and decrease (passivization and reflexivization) argument number. From a contrastive perspective, this study also compares the valency properties of Dothraki verbs with those of natural languages in terms of avalent verbs, labile verbs, and morphosyntactic differences. Building on the descriptive and contrastive analyses, this study concludes that Dothraki behaves similarly to natural languages.

Although important insights have been gained by comparing small amounts of data from disparate sources, linguistic generalizations are unlikely to prove valid when based on data whose synchronic status is not well-defined. As a case in point, the recent proposal by Koutsoudas, Sanders & Noll 1974 for universal principles of grammatical rule ordering is here shown to be insufficient, from their own data and on the basis of phonological rules derived from a thorough synchronic analysis of Old Icelandic. It is maintained that a proposal can have positive empirical consequences only if it imposes no conditions to eliminate extrinsic ordering from a grammar.* Many valuable theoretical insights have been gained by comparing linguistic processes obtaining in various dialects and/or languages. Generalizations drawn from such diverse sources can be fruitful; but it must not be imagined that universals or even useful generalizations can always be derived from the comparison of isolated phenomena. Any putative generalization must be carefully checked against a deep analysis of the linguistic data. Even the very processes taken from various languages for comparative purposes cannot be established without a thorough understanding of the languages in question. It is obvious that the proper description of data will proceed as linguistic theory develops. One of the features of a developing science is that the theory must often precede total description. Theories are proposed, and predictions made, to be confirmed by later investigations. In the case of linguistic science, however, many linguists have neglected the available internal facts of a particular language, and thus many theoretical principles are based on tenuous statements from individual languages. We maintain that some recent attempts at establishing universals are flawed by just this internal weakness. We demonstrate this point by showing the consequences of the recent proposal by Koutsoudas, Sanders & Noll 1974 to amend linguistic theory by a set of principles which, they claim, have universal validity. We contend that KSN's principles are intractable when applied to a complex and cohesive body of data. Their putative universals are derived from the comparison of small portions of various languages: phenomena from the Schaffhausen and Kesswil dialects of Swiss German, Southern Paiute, English, French, Low German, Finnish, Uruguayan Spanish, and others. Such selective and shallow gleanings do not necessarily contribute to the proof of universality. In ?1, below, we investigate KSN's claim that their proposal on ordering renders all extrinsic ordering statements unnecessary. In ?2, we evaluate the arguments presented in their article, and conclude that KSN offer insufficient evidence for the inclusion of their principles in linguistic theory. In ?3, we demonstrate the degree * We would like to thank Jay Keyser, Robin Cooper, and Emmon Bach for helpful comments arising from discussion concerning aspects of this paper. We alone, however, are responsible for any errors in fact or analysis. 611

This observation phenomenological study determined the functions of language used in Facebook posting among middle-age Filipino ESL learners (Senior Teacher Education Students in Urdaneta City University). Purposive selection of the respondents account for balance in which the respondents are chosen on the basis of their knowledge of the information desired and on the judgment of the researchers who is best qualified to the objectives. Online social networking sites have become a way for individuals to keep in contact with others around the world, with Facebook being one of the most popular sites. Facebook allows individuals to express themselves through its features, one of which is the status update. This study focused only to the respondents' text posts (statuses) in determining the language function. Referential and Emotive functions were the majority of the text posts of the respondents. Therefore, middleage Filipino learners are expressive of their emotions and feelings that they transfer into contents of the posts in Facebook. This study adds to the literature on Facebook. For future studies researchers should measure the personality along with the content of Facebook posts.

Professor Mary Dalrymple took a significant role as my supervisor. My assessors, Wolfgang de Melo, J.C. Smith and Jan Fellerer, thoroughly looked at my first works and provided their invaluable advice. My examiners, Professor Peter K Austin and Professor Wolfgang de Melo, gave up their time for other priorities to read my thesis and provided me with invaluable comments. They are not held responsible, however, for any misconceptions found in this thesis. Culpability for any shortcomings is entirely mine. My thanks also go to those who have contributed in various ways. Professor Alexandra Aikhenvald (Sasha) read the entirely draft of my thesis proposal; I am

Central Standard Russian is well-known for its vowel reduction in two degrees: the immediately pretonic vowel is much less reduced than vowels in other unstressed positions, both in quality and in quantity, at least when the allophone is a low vowel. This two-degree reduction is expressed clearly in speech from Central Russia, but earlier studies suggest a smaller difference between the degrees in non-central areas. We measured vowel duration and quality of unstressed /a, o/ in two modern urban Russian varieties: in read speech from 26 adolescents in Moscow (Central Russia) and Perm (Ural region). The Moscow speakers make a sharp distinction between the two degrees in both quantity (duration) and quality (F1), but we found only small, not statistically significant differences in Perm. Perm speech might lack phonological two-degree reduction altogether, in which case two-degree reduction is not a general feature of modern Russian urban speech.

STUDY PROGRAM OF QURANIC STUDIES AND EXEGESIS FACULTY OF USHULUDDIN PTIQ UNIVERSITY JAKARTA ACADEMIC YEAR 2024/2025 II ACKNOWLEDGMENT By mentioning the name of Allah SWT, the Most Compassionate, the Most Merciful, we praise and thank Him for His blessings, who has bestowed His grace, guidance, and inayah to us, so that we can complete this paper with the title "PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE". In this era of globalization, English language skills are very important. Therefore, this paper aims to examine the application of Prepositional Phrase in English learning, especially in improving students' language skills. This research uses qualitative methods with data analysis from several sources. The results of this study are expected to contribute to the development of effective English learning strategies. We have compiled this scientific paper to the maximum and received assistance from various parties so that it can facilitate the making of this paper. For that we extend many thanks to all those who have participated in making this paper. Apart from all that, we fully realize that there are still shortcomings both in terms of sentence structure and grammar. Therefore, with all the shortcomings in this paper, we accept all suggestions and criticisms from readers so that we can improve this scientific paper. Finally, we hope that this scientific paper on PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE can provide benefits to readers.

In this era of globalization, English language skills are very important. Therefore, this paper aims to examine the application of Prepositional Phrase in English learning, especially in improving students' language skills. This research uses qualitative methods with data analysis from several sources. The results of this study are expected to contribute to the development of effective English learning strategies. 1 We have compiled this scientific paper to the maximum and received assistance from various parties so that it can facilitate the making of this paper. For that we extend many thanks to all those who have participated in making this paper. Apart from all that, we fully realize that there are still shortcomings both in terms of sentence structure and grammar. Therefore, with all the shortcomings in this paper, we accept all suggestions and criticisms from readers so that we can improve this scientific paper. Finally, we hope that this scientific paper on PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE can provide benefits to readers.

ГЛАСНИК број 2, година I, 1959
Службен лист на Македонската Православна Црква

Издава: Македонска Православна Црква - Скопје, Митрополија
Главен и одговорен уредник: протоереј-ставрофор Нестор Попоски, митрополитски секретар
Излегува двомесечно
Годишна претплата: 1200 дин.
Печатено во печатница „Нова Македонија“

RESUMO: O presente artigo tem por objetivo fazer uma exposição das políticas linguísticas voltadas para as línguas indígenas existentes nos estados que compõem a Amazônia Ocidental, sendo eles: Acre, Amazonas, Roraima e Rondônia. Para tanto, o artigo expõe o que é a categoria políticas linguísticas por meio do aporte teórico de Calvet (2007), Lagares (2018), Neves (2023), dentre outros. Em seguida propomos a exposição e a discussão das políticas linguísticas existentes em cada estado. A metodologia utilizada foi a qualitativa, por meio de pesquisa documental e bibliográfica, e o corpus analisado no trabalho está constituído de três leis estaduais, duas leis municipais, três resoluções institucionais e um decreto nacional, resultado de busca virtual realizada no primeiro semestre de 2024. Concluiu-se que, apesar das iniciativas estaduais, municipais e por parte de universidades da esfera pública, seja de forma ampla ou menos abrangente, ainda existe um caminho a ser percorrido no que diz respeito à valorização e à promoção das línguas indígenas nesse território.

This paper provides a brief history of linguistics, the science of language, with special reference to identifying different eras. It isolates the typical features and characteristics of the given phases of linguistics. It also identifies the directions of linguistic history towards bio-sciences.

This article presents interlinear glossed texts in Shinekhen Buryat, a Mongolic language spoken by the Shinekhen Buryat people living around the Shinekhen River Basin in Hulunbuir City, Inner Mongolia, People's Republic of China. The texts in this article belong to a narrative genre called "domog" in both Mongolian and Buryat, which describes the origin of traditional cultures or customs. All texts in this article were conveyed by Ms. Dugarmaa, a Buryat woman (born in 1933).

The present paper tries to make a comparative study of the nominal phrases in the Indo-Aryan languages such as Angika, Maithili, Bhopuri, and Awadhi which has not been attempted together so far. This study attempts to exhibit irregularities, if any, that are found in NPs (nominal phrase) at the structural level in these languages. Apart from these, it explores questions like the types of relative clauses and the different forms or relativizing strategies in Indo-Aryan languages, the function of relative clause and different noun positions (functional) which are taken in the manifestation of relativization. This paper tries to validate the hypothesis given by Srivastava (1991) which discussed pronominal relative/ left adjoined relative clause as the quantificational clause and not as the modifier. Bhojpuri, Awadhi, Maithili and Angika, belong to the Indo-Aryan family of languages. All these languages cover the northern part of India. While Maithili is a scheduled language spoken in the northeastern part of Bihar state of India and in the tarai region of Nepal, Angika has been classified as an endangered Indo-Aryan language spoken in Bihar, West Bengal and Jharkhand state of India. Similarly, Bhojpuri is spoken in Eastern Uttar Pradesh, Western Bihar and Jharkhand while Awadhi mostly covers the Awadh region of modern day Uttar Pradesh and in some parts of Nepal. Though most of the typological characteristics of these languages are similar yet the study of RCs makes this study highly fascinating.

Francesco PERONO CACCIAFOCO. (2025). The Story behind the 'Moko' Drums, Sacred Musical Instruments from the Alor-Pantar Archipelago. The Conversation (Indonesia), 22 April 2025: 253225

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The article focuses on the research I published, some months ago, with Shiyue Wu, my Research Assistant at Xi'an Jiaotong-Liverpool University in Suzhou (Jiangsu, China), on the ancestral artefacts known as 'Moko' drums (and the related bronze gongs) from the Alor-Pantar Archipelago (and Timor's area in general), their history (and stories), the etymologies of their names, and their different and 'multi-layered' values and usages, in a work associating Language Documentation with Cultural Anthropology. Both the origins and provenance of the drums (and gongs) and the meaning and etymology of the denomination 'Moko' in itself are obscure and unknown even to the local speakers, and this makes for an intriguiging puzzle, at the linguistic and archaeological level and in the context of the history of the material culture and intangible heritage of Southeastern Indonesia - a puzzle still looking for its solution. Our studies are trying to fill this research gap by collecting, processing, and analyzing 'first hand data' through Field Linguistics' and etymological approaches. The 'Moko' drums were believed to generate melodies connecting the world of the gods with the world of the mortals, and were and (still) are also used by the Papuan peoples of the Alor-Pantar Archipelago as a prestigious local 'currency' and for traditional customs and practices, like 'bride-price' negotiations.