Depreciation and Discount

What is offered below is a study of the Mughal currency system during the reigns of Akbar (1556-1605) and Jahāngīr (1605-27). The stream of gold and silver coming to India through the Spanish exploitation of the New World enabled the Mughal Empire to shift from a copper coinage under the Lodis to a monetary system based on the silver rupee under Sher Shah and Akbar. The silver rupee now replaced the copper dām as the main unit of currency though copper coins (dām and tanka) still continued to circulate widely in low monetary transactions. This article traces the story of the evolution of Mughal monetary systems till Jahāngīr's death (1627). It studies in detail the different problems that beset Mughal monetary policy in the successive stages of its evolution.

This study resituates the notion of Natural Capital (NC) in a cosmological
perspective and mobilizes accounting theory to propose a fresh approach
to the concept. Thus, we firstly offer a critical analysis of NC to clarify the
differences between its (capitalist) economic and ecological approaches. To
do this, we perform a “Latourian” anthropological analysis of the main-
stream notion of capital, repositioned in the Modern cosmology, as well as
the notion of “Ecology.” We show that the mainstream use of NC is incom-
patible with an ecological perspective, even in the case of Economic
“Strong Sustainability.” As an outcome, this study renews the critical ana-
lysis of Strong versus Weak sustainability. We then connect this debate
with the concept of capital in “Traditional” Accounting (TA). We argue that
TA theory provides a relevant framework to structure the debate on NC
and to implement an ecological conceptualization of this notion. At the
corporate level, in particular, the difference between a capitalist and an
ecological NC relies on the difference between a debit (economic) and a
credit (accounting) concept of capital. This study so proposes an extension
of the “classical” accounting practices in historical costs to a more eco-
logical vision of NC, linking accounting practices understood by current
corporate stakeholders to ecological requirements. By doing this, we want
to open a potential path of research in ecological economics and account-
ing based on an alternative perspective on NC.

ayl dpnls 01 s! IsaJau! jo Janem ayl uaqM padope s! apom lvnp!nzpu?-vrlu1 aqL ,uo!ls!l!qeqaJ pods pue d501oqlemncn wods jo leyl ase3 Jno u! p m au!znpam jo plag aql saqohu! pumas aql '%u!u?n pue s a ~m u u o p a d wods dp3aqp saalohu! J S J ~ aql :In0 pau!od aq ue3 asod~nd lua~ajj!p OW 'apom q3ea JO+J -apom lvnp?npuy-ralul pue lvnp!n!pu?-vrlu1 aql :apom ~ua~ajj!p u ~m OMJ u! pasn aq m 3 q3eo~dde uosgdmor, @3pspels aql jo uoge3!ldde aqL '('313 ppOW dp0q @3!lVUIaql€?m ' ~q 1 ~0 % [ k ? %u!ssa3o~d I V U ~! ~ JO SUZ' 2l.U dq .3la J ~M O ~ 'anb.101 lu!of 'uoge~a1a33e "d1!301a~ a ~m ~s u ! JOJ w ) pah!.rap JO (.31a sqde~%odmo~3a1a 'su~ojle[d 3 3 J O j 's~asd@m uogom jo smam dq) p a p ~o 3 a ~ dpz~a~!p aq ue3 1eq1 SaIqeueh 3!qde~%oduro~~na[a '\,

Money and the Monetary Economy in the Ā'īn-i Akbarī of Abū al-Fażl HAIDER, Najaf Coins and manuscripts have survived in largest number from the past. For a study of the Mughal monetary economy, coins are crucial primary sources available in abundance. But coins throw more light upon themselves than the purpose they serve and changes they bring. To understand these aspects of economy and society, researchers rely on literary sources. The Ā'īn-i Akbarī of Abū al-Fażl is a literary source par excellence for the study of money and its role in the circles of exchange in the Mughal Empire in the second half of the sixteenth century. The book has copious descriptions of the concept of money, variety of coinage, mint production, monetary measures of the state and prices and wages. This paper is a humble effort to highlight the role of the Ā'īn-i Akbarī in understanding an important aspect of Mughal history.

In [3], ErdGs et al. studied the following number-theoretic problem: For arbitrary positive integers k and n, let Fk(n) denote the greatest positive integer t such that there is a set AC{l, 2,..., n} of t elements such that none of them are square representable product of k distinct elements of A, i.e., the equation ala2.. 'ak =x2,

A w l a w n alms IPloqwnH W s e d 'V PJeW!tl 'ZEP-L L Z 'dd '~~6 1 %!no1 tu!es '.03 Lqsow .A '3 aqt ' p a puz ..'LJoteJoqel 1e3!u!13 aqt JOJ uo!tewotnv lea!t3eJd., "3 'S 'suanals Pue "W 'W ' U O S Y~! J~ "1 'M 'al!qM, ' (~~6 1) QPS ' 6~ " m a 3 w 3~3 T '.I 'uaqnqas , ' (1~6~) 01 t 'UP "3np3 'waq3 "r 'H 'Su!uaa~ pue "W 'v 'p1ee6a110~ '.j y 'aiwo3,

Dr. B.R. Ambedkar's approach to economics was significant and founded on his expertise in comprehending issues at their most fundamental level. He had a profound awareness of both the British financial system and the pattern of the Indian rupee's exchange value. He explains the importance of the "medium of exchange" in stabilising any currency through its supply and demand networks. He was a first-generation Indian economist who earned degrees from the London School of Economics and Columbia University in the United States. He was the first to advocate for monetary and fiscal reform in India. In my paper, I will try to understand his analysis of the growth of Indian modern currency and the financial weaknesses during British India.

Dr. B.R. Ambedkar's approach to economics was significant and founded on his expertise in comprehending issues at their most fundamental level. He had a profound awareness of both the British financial system and the pattern of the Indian rupee's exchange value. He explains the importance of the "medium of exchange" in stabilising any currency through its supply and demand networks. He was a first-generation Indian economist who earned degrees from the London School of Economics and Columbia University in the United States. He was the first to advocate for monetary and fiscal reform in India. In my paper, I will try to understand his analysis of the growth of Indian modern currency and the financial weaknesses during British India.

Gesell taxes on money holdings have received attention in recent decades as a way of alleviating the zero lower bound on interest rates. Less known is that such a tax was the predominant method used to generate seigniorage in large parts of medieval Europe for around two centuries. When the Gesell tax was levied, current coins ceased to be legal tender and had to be exchanged into new coins for a fee-an institution known as renovatio monetae or periodic re-coinage. This could occur as often as twice a year. Using a cash-in-advance model, we analyze under which conditions agents prefer to re-mint their coins and the system generates tax revenues. We also analyze how prices fluctuate over an issue period.

Ambedkar argued that the gold exchange standard during colonial India was flawed. While it did restrict private citizens from minting silver to coins, it did not prevent the Indian government from doing so SASHI SIVRAMKRISHNA APRIL 14, 2023 / 08:32 AM IST This year also happens to be the 100th year since the publication of one of Ambedkar's most notable works in monetary economics, 'The Problem of the Rupee: Its Origin and Its Solution' Highlights • In early 19 th century under colonial rule, the rupee was essentially a minted piece of silver metal of 92 percent purity • Britain was on gold standard while other major economies followed silver, keeping a stable fixed exchange rate between the two metals

Hundis in Medieval India were financial instruments that were used for remittance across distant places. In this paper, I compile the narratives provided by South Asian historians about the hundi system and re-examine the historical evidence in light of theories from institutional economics and economic history. A key insight in institutional economics is that, in the absence of a formal legal regime for contract enforcement, social norms provide protections for contracting parties in complex economic exchanges. I explore how the societal and cultural pressures affected the workings of the sarrafs - the issuers of the hundis, and ensured that sarrafs would not dishonour hundi contracts or overcharge their clients. Finally, the paper also provides a framework for further studies to compare similar instruments across time and space. I have used the method of analytic narratives to provide an economic history perspective to the historical narratives available. The insights from this paper could be used to examine the arguments of ‘The Great Divergence’ – including the ones that argue for the superior mobility of capital in Europe during the medieval period.

The ‘Triple Bottom Line’ (TBL) is a major and increasingly used socio-environmental accounting framework. However, critical academic examinations of this model have been remained scarce and most importantly, no real alternatives have been developed. Thus this theoretical paper provides a contribution to fill this gap. Through a critical analysis of the TBL, we argue that it suffers from severe limitations. In particular, it does not protect human and natural capital (HNC). As an answer to these problems, we propose and discuss another accounting framework, the ‘Triple Depreciation Line’ (TDL), which extends to HNC the powerful capitalist accounting tool for preserving financial capital – the historical cost accounting (HCA) and its planned depreciation. To this end, we analyse and (re-)define the concept of capital in an ecological accounting context. We clearly specify the assumptions on which the TDL relies, to facilitate comparisons or dialogues with other accounting models and t...

The "Triple Bottom Line" (TBL) is a major and increasingly used socio-environmental accounting framework. However academic critical examinations of this model have remained scarce and most importantly, no real alternatives have been developed. Thus this theoretical paper provides a contribution to fill this gap. Firstly from a critical analysis of the TBL approach, we argue that this one suffers severe limitations. In particular, it does not protect human and natural capitals. As an answer to these problems, we propose and discuss an other accounting framework, the "Triple Depreciation Line" (TDL), which extends the powerful tool of capitalist accounting for preserving the financial capital, the Historical Cost Accounting and its planned depreciation, to human and natural capitals. To this end, we analyse and redefine the concept of capital in an ecological accounting context. We clearly specify the hypothesis on which the TDL relies, to facilitate comparisons and dialogues with other accounting models.

This paper describes a new interview questionnaire for the assessment of leisure-time physical activity (LTPA), and its validation as an alternative estimate of physical fitness. British subjects (77 males, 41 females) provided details of their LTPA over a period of a "typical" 2 weeks, enabling the estimation of the energy expended. Physical fitness was assessed with a battery of measures, the optimal single measure being sub-maximal physical work capacity (PWC). The questionnaire showed LTPA to be stable following test-retest administration (r = 0.86; p < 0.0001) for total LTPA energy expenditure. Total LTPA was found to be significantly related to PWC (r = 0.48, p < O.OOOl), as were very hard (r = 0.55; p < 0.0001) and hard LTPA (r = 0.38; p < 0.0001). Multiple regression analysis with PWC as the dependent variable yielded a multiple correlation of r = 0.87,. with significant contributions from very hard and hard LTPA. It is concluded that whilst this questionnaire is both reliable and a valid estimate of physical fitness amongst a population consistent in their leisure-time physical activities, there is scope for its further use within larger populations, allowing for an analysis of the effects of age and gender on the associations so far observed. Leisure-time activity questionnaire Energy expenditure Physical fitness

The resin of Shorea robusta has yielded eight known triterpenoids of which five have been isolated for the first time. It has also afforded two new triterpenoids, namely 3,25-epoxy-1,2,3,11-tetrahydroxyurs-12en-28-oic acid and 3,25-epoxy-1,2,3-trihydroxyurs-l2-en-28-oic acid whose structures have been elucidated by spectroscopic methods and chemical transformations. 01997 Published by Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved M '(Sz) SO1 '(SE) 611 '(z9) EEI '(IZ) ELI '(LZ) L81 '(85) EOZ '(ZI) 61Z '(6) SEZ '(001) +[ZO"zH9'31 8PZ 'CL) L9E 'CL) PEP '(8) P6P '(E) +[H03VE-fl] 80s '(9) +[H03VZ-W] 895 :('lu! 'IaJ) Z/u St'IIEI t)-O-3) WOI '01 I I '(alvla=) SEZI '(B==D) SP9 I '(H003) 01 L I '(WW~~) LPL I '006ZI)OOE '(HOOD'HO) OOZEFOO9E :,-mD;:;^ 81 'G9Z'O 3 %H3) 09'Zf + op1 'SS~~ sno3sbi ez>

A w l a w n alms IPloqwnH W s e d 'V PJeW!tl 'ZEP-L L Z 'dd '~~6 1 %!no1 tu!es '.03 Lqsow .A '3 aqt ' p a puz ..'LJoteJoqel 1e3!u!13 aqt JOJ uo!tewotnv lea!t3eJd., "3 'S 'suanals Pue "W 'W ' U O S Y~! J~ "1 'M 'al!qM, ' (~~6 1) QPS ' 6~ " m a 3 w 3~3 T '.I 'uaqnqas , ' (1~6~) 01 t 'UP "3np3 'waq3 "r 'H 'Su!uaa~ pue "W 'v 'p1ee6a110~ '.j y 'aiwo3,

This paper describes a new interview questionnaire for the assessment of leisure-time physical activity (LTPA), and its validation as an alternative estimate of physical fitness. British subjects (77 males, 41 females) provided details of their LTPA over a period of a "typical" 2 weeks, enabling the estimation of the energy expended. Physical fitness was assessed with a battery of measures, the optimal single measure being sub-maximal physical work capacity (PWC). The questionnaire showed LTPA to be stable following test-retest administration (r = 0.86; p < 0.0001) for total LTPA energy expenditure. Total LTPA was found to be significantly related to PWC (r = 0.48, p < O.OOOl), as were very hard (r = 0.55; p < 0.0001) and hard LTPA (r = 0.38; p < 0.0001). Multiple regression analysis with PWC as the dependent variable yielded a multiple correlation of r = 0.87,. with significant contributions from very hard and hard LTPA. It is concluded that whilst this questionnaire is both reliable and a valid estimate of physical fitness amongst a population consistent in their leisure-time physical activities, there is scope for its further use within larger populations, allowing for an analysis of the effects of age and gender on the associations so far observed. Leisure-time activity questionnaire Energy expenditure Physical fitness

mopaas twaJesa3 JO aleJ aql ~a~01 iou saop l! lnq 'Joqel u! UaLuoM snoJedqlnu %ome ~!solsbp JO huanbaq aql %u!anpaJ pue Joqe[ JO UO!ll?Jnp aql ihI!UalJOqSJO pOqlalU aA!laaJJa UB S! hO,O!UUW 61J"g 'SUOlSn~aUO~ 'z'L MOlaq Hd POOlq-pJO3 It?!laln pue 'L Mo[aq a~oas Jv57dV alnu!waAg 'l!un aJea aA!sualu! [~leuoau R 01 uo!ss+upv papnlau! amoaino asJaApv ue JO saJnseatu aql :sdnoJ8 0~1 aql u! uawom aql dq paJayap slugu! aql uaaMlaq atuoalno u! SaauaJaJyp ~ueag!t@s .Qeys!lels ou aJaM aJaq~ '('I/;,[ I 'luatuahwtu a,qsaJasuoz !')/;,zI 'kuo~o~ume) sdnoJ% OMI aq1 U! JEl!"!S SBM aleJ uogaas-uEaJEsa3 aqL 'uo!le,el!p [l?!l!U! LU3 E ri ql!M UaUIOM %UOUI&? i([UO paallpaJ SCM ~UO~O!ULUI? ql!M pale!aoSSE R!aOlSdp JO huanbaJJ ayl 'S!S~[EUI? palJ!leJls

This study explains the history and painting technique of one of Pollock's drip and poured paintings from1947, a turning point in his work. Technical investigation of the painting has presented much information, giving a better insight view of the development of Pollock's work, his choice of metals and the layering of the painting.

History: Bharuch (Location: 21.712 N, 72.993 E) or Broach as the British called it, is a very ancient place (possibly the second oldest continually populated city in India after Kashi) with an over 8000 year history, has been known by various names over different periods of time. Ancient texts mention the name of the place as Bharukachha, Bharugachheva, Bhrigupur, … Bharuch (Bhadoch as the local Muslims called it) and the last Anglicized name Broach. Bharuch, a very important trading place from times immemorial has been ruled by various political entities at different points in history including the Maurya's, the Western Kshtraps, the Gurjar and Rajput clans subordinate to the Chaklukyas, the Chaurs and Waghelas of Anhilwad, followed by about 500 years of Muslim rule-beginning with the Sultans of Dehli, followed by the Sultans of Gujarat and the Mughals. The last Muslim rulers of the state were the semi-independent Nawabs of Bharuch who ruled Bharuch for a short period of 36 years. This was followed by British rule from 1772 to 1947 with a break from 1783 to 1803 when the administration was handed over to the Sindhia's of Gwalior.

The Mughal Empire established a single trimetallic currency with the silver rupee as its basic coin. Yet, strangely, its most commercialised penance Gujarat continued to use alongside the imperial rupee a local silver coin called ma°mødð. The paper examines how this came about and how Gujarat in effect got divided into two zones, in one of which the rupee was the main circulating medium, in the other, the ma°mødð. By the beginning of the seventeenth century, the Mughal currency system had established itself over a large part of the country through imperial expansion and a series of administrative measures ranging from monetised taxation and serial mint production to standardisation of the circulating medium. 1 Mughal India thus had a single currency system transcending regions with its principal silver coin, the rupee, as the legal tender. The Mughal government prohibited the circulation of any coin other than the one uttered by the imperial mints and the standard policy was to convert all non-Mughal coins, Indian and foreign, into coins of the current monarch. The Mughal emperors treated coinage as a symbol of sovereignty and its issuance and integrity a matter of great prestige. 2 Minting was also a commercial activity since coins were struck in large numbers on payment of a fee (seignior-age) at every mint. Generally speaking, the market too preferred a single currency When a hoard of Roman coins, discovered in the suburbs of Agra, was brought before the Mughal emperor, Jahångīr (1605–27), he was impressed, after the legends were deciphered for him by the Jesuits, that the coins preserved the name of a Roman emperor for over a millennium. Jahangir enquired anxiously whether his coins would also preserve his memory. A noble present there assured him that the memory of the monarch would last longer since his coins were of purer metal (kåmilu-l 'iyår).

Early amniotomy has been advocated as a means of preventing dystocia, but its efficacy has not been studied prospectively. The purpose of this multicenter study was to determine whether routine early amniotomy reduces the risk of dystocia for nulliparous women in spontaneous labor. We studied 925 nulliparous women in labor, who were stratified according to the degree of cervical dilatation (&amp;lt; 3 cm vs. &amp;gt; or = 3 cm) and randomly assigned to either early rupture of the membranes (amniotomy group) or conservative management of labor (conservative-management group). Dystocia was defined as a period of at least four hours after dilatation of the cervix to 3 cm had been reached during which the mean rate of cervical dilatation was less than 0.5 cm per hour. Dystocia was significantly less frequent in the amniotomy group than in the conservative-management group (34 percent vs. 45 percent; relative risk, 0.8; 95 percent confidence interval, 0.6 to 0.9). The median length of time from randomization to full dilatation was 136 minutes shorter in the amniotomy group, and there was a trend toward less frequent use of oxytocin among the women assigned to amniotomy (36 percent vs. 41 percent; relative risk, 0.9; 95 percent confidence interval, 0.8 to 1.0). In a stratified analysis, the frequency of dystocia associated with amniotomy was reduced only among women with &amp;gt; or = 3 cm initial dilatation. The cesarean-section rate was similar in the two groups (amniotomy, 12 percent; conservative management, 11 percent). There were no statistically significant differences in outcome between the infants delivered by the women in the two groups; the measures of an adverse outcome included admission to a neonatal intensive care unit, five-minute Apgar score below 7, and arterial cord-blood pH below 7.2. Early amniotomy is an effective method of shortening the duration of labor and reducing the frequency of dystocia among nulliparous women in labor, but it does not lower the rate of cesarean section.

mopaas twaJesa3 JO aleJ aql ~a~01 iou saop l! lnq 'Joqel u! UaLuoM snoJedqlnu %ome ~!solsbp JO huanbaq aql %u!anpaJ pue Joqe[ JO UO!ll?Jnp aql ihI!UalJOqSJO pOqlalU aA!laaJJa UB S! hO,O!UUW 61J"g 'SUOlSn~aUO~ 'z'L MOlaq Hd POOlq-pJO3 It?!laln pue 'L Mo[aq a~oas Jv57dV alnu!waAg 'l!un aJea aA!sualu! [~leuoau R 01 uo!ss+upv papnlau! amoaino asJaApv ue JO saJnseatu aql :sdnoJ8 0~1 aql u! uawom aql dq paJayap slugu! aql uaaMlaq atuoalno u! SaauaJaJyp ~ueag!t@s .Qeys!lels ou aJaM aJaq~ '('I/;,[ I 'luatuahwtu a,qsaJasuoz !')/;,zI 'kuo~o~ume) sdnoJ% OMI aq1 U! JEl!"!S SBM aleJ uogaas-uEaJEsa3 aqL 'uo!le,el!p [l?!l!U! LU3 E ri ql!M UaUIOM %UOUI&? i([UO paallpaJ SCM ~UO~O!ULUI? ql!M pale!aoSSE R!aOlSdp JO huanbaJJ ayl 'S!S~[EUI? palJ!leJls

This essay analyses the sign inca nee of historical and visible form as a fundame(l;c scape. The form of landscape derives from the inseparable whole made up of barr 52~: -:: reality and is a result of a co-evolved and strati ned process between society ana e r ::al/y re-interpreted by the observer. In this paper the relationship between social ider~~:;rlandscape is considered as a central theme; such a relationship is intended as a basic~:;~w hich works as a medium of an active connection linking inhabitants and places.-=:;r :; :: has been a total identincation between landscape and rural landscape (interpretea as c ::_ã spects and settlements in their complexity). Until the industrial revolution, more rho,., -: _ :-population was employed in agriculture: Europewas a world of farmers (Tosco 2009. :: -landscapes represent the founding and identity-making structure which character;ses~r2~--Community Currently, landscape assumes several specincations, but, as highlightec c, _::: Union policies, rural landscape has also taken on the role of protecting and safegucr:; r:; correct management of rural heritage is not only able to produce quality goods ane se r :::.. improve the quality of aI/landscape. This essaywil/ attempt to understand how to trans'e r -r 2 structural knowledge, typical of historico-geographical research, to planning, and to crec-2:; r historical knowledge and the participation of the population in the planning process.

u! pagnlpe aq 01 spaau K[alw pue 'anssg aql30 ped Kue q8no1q~ luanna ames aq) sJaAllap 1~ asneaaq pana3ald SBM snpwps a%l[oA luelsuoa v 'h OP-sf 30 Klyalu! ue le 'uopernp aasrl OOI 30 srqntugs aAe.w aIenbs a@u!s e qlfm 'sdaalo3 IeIod!q e ql!M uoa8Ins aql Kq pauuo3Iad

The nature of the seventeenth-century Mughal state and its land revenue taxation system has become a matter of controversy in recent years. Irfan Habib and his followers dominated thinking on this subject from the sixties onwards. They saw the regime as highly centralized and essentially extractive in nature. The land revenue system was designed to extract the whole surplus, leaving the peasants immiserated. Trade was sterile in that it was state inspired, and required to meet the cash demands of the tax system. 'Natural' commerce and Smithian growth scarcely existed, since there was no surplus after the state had taken its share.

The ‘Triple Bottom Line’ (TBL) is a major and increasingly used socio-environmental accounting framework. However, critical academic examinations of this model have been remained scarce and most importantly, no real alternatives have been developed. Thus this theoretical paper provides a contribution to fill this gap. Through a critical analysis of the TBL, we argue that it suffers from severe limitations. In particular, it does not protect human and natural capital (HNC). As an answer to these problems, we propose and discuss another accounting framework, the ‘Triple Depreciation Line’ (TDL), which extends to HNC the powerful capitalist accounting tool for preserving financial capital – the historical cost accounting (HCA) and its planned depreciation. To this end, we analyse and (re-)define the concept of capital in an ecological accounting context. We clearly specify the assumptions on which the TDL relies, to facilitate comparisons or dialogues with other accounting models and to avoid misunderstanding as in the case of the TBL. These axioms concern what we call the ‘social’ (axioms SA1–2) and ‘corporate’ (axioms AA1–4) capital maintenance. While the two first appeal to the most precise ontological investigation possible of HNC, the others imply mainly the recourse to the HCA and its depreciation.

I have added the unpublished third progress report of the study (this one written by myself) for two reasons: first it establishes the complex thinking by which we established service flow subsidies; secondly it counters criticism of some earlier comprehensive national housing subsidy enumerations that they did not calculate the "effective incidence" of the taxes-  the incidence following adjustment of the housing market.

The report is the only place I know where it is shown how to calculate mathematically the effective incidence of imputed rent and capital gains taxes and expenditure on public housing. 

It also points out that the government actually makes money from negative gearing - through the tax on interest receipts received by lenders, and that capital gains are an intergenerational transfer, with price rises of housing discouraging demand in the long term.

It's nearly 25 years old and never attracted any attention, but I like this paper. It contains most of the ideas that went into the more sophisticated 1998 paper. It's the only place I've seen theory as to why depreciation should be charged as the reciprocal of the effective life, and why if it is not there is a warping of resource allocation and a deadweight loss. The pig paper showed that this was actually occurring on a significant scale in real life.

I like the paper because it follows the classic CSIRO science path - find a real world problem in a significant industry, develop a theory as to why it is happening and how it can be fixed, and then get it implemented. Even better if it has application to other areas such as capital gains taxes. In this case, like so many useful pieces of research - never implemented! Accelerated depreciation allowances were introduced soon afterwards, making the paper redundant.

At the time, housing authorities were quoting the counter-cyclical employment-generation  potential of housing to convince Treasuries to release funds. This was a follow on from the more elaborate Victorian two-region Spot Purchase study (AHRC 145) calculating similar indices for SA. It led into the Urban Resources SA Landlords study (Burgan and Flood)

One of the few studies on the economics of piggery buildings. These take tremendous physical damage and are subject to rapid environmental degradation. The industry had suggested that inadequate depreciate rates were causing farmers to use poor quality materials because they could claim a full tax deduction for repairs and replacement. The paper used cost-benefit analysis of the full range of piggery fittings to show that while tax did have an effect, it was in fact more cost effective to use the degrade-and-repair strategy in any case.

The paper led to several more relating to optimal depreciation and maintenance schedules.

I've also attached the descriptive piece in "Pig Production in Asutralia; Gardner et al, 1990 Butterworth

An update of the Flood-Yates Housing Subsidies Study (HSS), done for the Industry Commission with a 1990-1991 base.

The paper is an update both in data and methodology from the original HSS which covered 1994-95. It makes use of work by Gavin Wood in 1991 from the National Housing Strategy, which conducted an improved examination of State taxes, and a paper by Judy Yates in 1992 on her favourite topic of tax expenditures - along with various analyses by Treasury and ABS of subsidies and tax expenditures, apparently following the  the  HSS.

One of the main results of the original study was that considerably more assistance was going to public housing tenants than renters. Due to a more than threefold increase in Rent Assistance (CRA), partially triggered by the HSS, both were now about equal.

Appendix B showed that subsidies on public housing were actually much greater than the ABS estimates, which factored in higher-income government employees. It also estimated a large number of individuals in higher income or home owning households were receiving CRA, and about a quarter to a half of payments were of this kind. The relative ease by which unemployed adult children or cohabiting partners of home owners could claim to be paying rent to the owner was probably responsible.

Objective. Several HIV positive patients exhibit some bone lesions such as osteopenia and osteoporosis with a higher prevalenee of bone fractures. Although the mechanisms involved in bone mass loss are not elucidateci, some studies have indicated a relationship between HIV infection and osteopenia/osteoporosis due to osteoblast/ osteoclast cross-talk derangement. In particular, HIV gp120 is able to induce a func-tional inhibition and apoptoais of osteoblasts. Our study is focused on possible role of HIV-1 Tat in osteoclastogenesis to explore possible novel mechanisms involved in HIV related osteopenia/osteoporosis.
Methods. Monocytes were purified from healthy blood donors' PBMCs and differ-entiated to osteoclast lineage with RANKL plus M-CSF in presence or absence of Tat. Osteoclast differentiation marker mRNAs [catepsina K, calcitonin receptor e TRAP) as well as c-fos mRNA were analyzed by real time qRT-PCR. Osteoclast differentiation and activity were studied by TRAP assay. c-fos promoter, c-fos deletion mutants and TRE-CAT plasmids were transfected by Amaxa method and the CAT protein was as-sessed by CAT ELISA kit.
Results and conclusion. The data demonstrated that Tat up-regulated the osteoclast differentiation marker mRNAs in presence of RANKL and M-CSF treatment. Cathep-sin K, calcitonin receptor and TRAP mRNAs were significantly induced by Tat, only n presence of RANKL and M-CSF, during the differentiation and the number and activity of osteoclasts were increased. Since c-fos is a basic factor for osteoclast dif--'erentiation and is positively regulated tby Tat in several cellular models, we evaluated .vhether Tat is able to modulate c-fos expression. C-fos mRNA and protein were up--egulated by Tat and the promoter was hyperactivated especially through the domains in the -440/-220 c-fos promoter region. In addition AP-1 activity was significantly ncreased. Altogether, these data show that Tat could play a role of enhancer of os-:eoclast differentiation and activity in presence of RANKL/M-CSF treatment through the up-regulation of c-fos and AP-1 activity. These observations indicate that Tat may mprove the osteoclastogenesis during the HIV infection suggesting a possible Tat related mechanism in the genesis of bone lesions in the HIV positive patients.

In empires encompassing vast territories and diverse customs, the standardization of currencies, exchange rates, weights and measures, was essential for the smooth conduct of economic affairs. Standardization rationalized economic exchange and reduced time and transaction costs. In pre-modern times, standardization often coincided with the establishment of effective sovereign power and the political unification of trading zones. The coincidence between sovereignty and control of standards is especially well illustrated in the realm of exchange and currency circulation in the Mughal Empire.

This chapter explores four institutional factors which went into the making of the wage structure in the Mughal Empire. Focusing on the relationship between monetization, patterns of currency circulation and wage payments, it also raises historiographical issues crucial to the understanding of the overtime movement of money wages in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. It must be admitted that quantitative data on wages, prices, money supply and income are extremely limited and fragmentary for the whole of medieval India (00-800). It is only from the middle of the nineteenth century (8) that one begins to get unbroken statistical series on prices and wages. This explains the short treatment the subject has received in current historiography. However, there is sufficient evidence -some of it fresh -to commence an investigation into the process of wage determination and payment and to offer new interpretations for existing material.