Delegated Legislation

This is an excerpts from 'Constitutional Law-I' published in the Annual Survey of Indian Law - 2023.  This part examines the decision of the five-judge bench of the Supreme Court rendered in Vivek Narayan Sharma v. Union of India (2023), in which the bench by 4:1 majority upheld the legality and constitutionality of demonetization of all series of high denomination bank notes in India in 2016.

Decoding Pakistan’s justice system—from the Supreme Court to the grassroots judiciary—in one definitive guide to law, structure, and reform.
Foundations of Pakistan’s Legal System: Structure, Jurisdiction, and Practice provides a comprehensive analysis of the constitutional, statutory, and procedural framework governing the judiciary of Pakistan. Tracing the system’s origins from the Government of India Act 1935 to the present constitutional order, the work examines the evolution, structure, and functioning of the Supreme Court, High Courts, Federal Shariat Court, and the subordinate judiciary.
The paper details:
Historical Context—Continuity from British colonial legal structures to Pakistan’s sovereign framework.
Superior Judiciary – Composition, appointment procedures post–Eighteenth Amendment, constitutional powers, and landmark judgments ensuring judicial independence.
High Courts—Jurisdiction, supervisory powers, transfer provisions, and evolving appointment mechanisms.
Federal Shariat Court—Role in Islamic law review, appellate structure, jurisdictional controversies, and reform debates.
Subordinate Judiciary—Civil, criminal, revenue, and special courts; recruitment, promotions, training, and disciplinary mechanisms.
Procedural Framework – Core principles under the Civil Procedure Code 1908, Criminal Procedure Code 1898, and Qanun-e-Shahadat 1984, including court processes from filing to execution.
Jurisdictional Mapping—Detailed breakdown of original, appellate, supervisory, and advisory jurisdictions of all courts, supplemented with organizational hierarchies.
The work critically highlights systemic challenges such as heavy caseloads, procedural delays, and structural overlaps, while proposing reforms for efficiency, transparency, and alignment with global best practices. It serves as an authoritative resource for legal practitioners, scholars, and policymakers seeking an in-depth understanding of Pakistan’s judicial architecture.

#PakistanLaw #JudicialSystem #RuleOfLaw #LegalReform #Judiciary #SupremeCourt #HighCourts #LawAndJustice #LegalResearch #CourtStructure #PakistaniLaw #LegalPractice #AccessToJustice #LawStudents

The essay offers a mapping of the themes and issues related to the exercise of the Government's normative function in European countries where the legislative and executive branches are connected by a relationship of confidence. The examined European constitutions reflect the existence of a shared normative function between Parliament and Government. In particular, three distinct bases for conferring normative authority on the Government can be identified: a) the recognition of the power to adopt implementing regulations of statutes and, at times, a general regulatory power; b) the delegation of normative authority to the Government by Parliament; c) the attribution of an autonomous normative power to the Government, linked either to a specific area of competence or to the occurrence of situations of urgency, necessity, or emergency. In each legal system, the Government's role in exercising the normative function results from the combination of these different options and from the actual balance of power established between Parliament and Government. These considerations, together with data on the Government's normative output, reveal the significant centrality of the executive in the production of legislation. This trend is consistent with the growing prominence of Governments within the power dynamics of contemporary systems of government-further reinforced in recent years by the debt crisis and the Covid-19 pandemic. Within this framework, Italy holds a particularly distinctive position due to the Government's prerogative to adopt two types of primary legislation-legislative decrees and law decrees-and the extensive use of both as a matter of practice.

20-րդ դարի վերջից աշխարհում տարածում է գտել պետական կառավարման մարմինների լիազորությունների «մասնավորեցման» պրակտիկան։ Հաշվի առնելով ինստիտուտի ոչ այդքան մեծ ճանապարհ անցած լինելը, ինչպես նաև հայեցակարգային մոտեցումների բացակայությունը՝ պետությունները սահմանադրական և օրենսդրական լուրջ խնդիրների առաջ են կանգնած ոչ պետական կազմակերպություններին պետաիշխանական լիազորությունների պատվիրակման գործընթացում։ Սույն զեկույցով անդրադարձ է կատարվում պետաիշխանական լիազորությունների պատվիրակմանը ազատականության գաղափարախոսության համատեքստում: Վերջինս ժամանակի ընթացքում վերածվել է ծայրահեղականության, ըստ որի՝ պետությունը, պատվիրակելով իր լիազորությունը մասնավորին, խուսափում է այդ լիազորության ոչ արդյունավետ և ոչ իրավաչափ իրականացման հետևանքով առաջացող պատասխանատվությունից։ Զեկույցում փորձ է արվում հիմնավորել այն մոտեցումը, համաձայն որի՝ պետաիշխանական լիազորությունների պատվիրակման հիմքում անհրաժեշտ է ունենալ ամուր կառուցակարգերի ամբողջություն, որոնք կապահովեն պետական լիազորությունների իրականացման արդյունավետության և ժողովրդավարական սկզբունքների, մարդու իրավունքների սահմանափակումների պատշաճ հավասարակշռումը։ Անդրադարձ է կատարվում նաև ՀՀ-ում ընթացող սահմանադրական բարեփոխումների շրջանակում քննարկման առարկա դարձած «իշխանության պատվիրակման» գաղափարին, որի արդյունքում ներդրվելու են մասնավոր սեկտորին իշխանական լիազորությունների պատվիրակումը թույլատրող նորմեր։

This research paper critically analyzes the Sindh Consumer Protection Act, 2014 (SCPA), its implementation through litigation in Consumer Courts, and its impact on safeguarding consumer rights in Sindh, Pakistan. It explores the legislative framework, judicial interpretations, procedural challenges, and overall effectiveness in offering redressal to consumers. Using doctrinal and empirical methods, the paper assesses the awareness, access to justice, and tangible benefits derived by consumers, and offers policy recommendations to strengthen the consumer protection regime in Sindh.

The energy crisis of 2021-2023 and to some extent, the related full-scale war in Ukraine have been a catalyst for the EU's energy policy response, thus contributing to the creation of new regulatory tools by the European Union to establish a more systemic response by this international organisation to future threats. An analysis of the delegated and implementing acts adopted in recent years justifies the identification of three levels of EU response to the energy crisis. These concern preventive measures against possible gas supply disruptions to the Member States during the winter of 2021/2022, the promotion of cross-border cooperation in the field of renewable energy to enhance energy security in the EU, and the prevention of electricity crises triggered by digital attacks. Some of these measures can be seen as some attempt to create more systemic tools that would be used by the Commission to respond to future crisis threats that are ongoing in parallel.

This policy paper critically examines labour-related
policies, regulations, practices, and welfare activities in
Pakistan, focusing on their impact on industrial
development and social protection. While Pakistan’s
legal framework provides a foundation for safeguarding
labour rights, enforcement challenges, inclusivity, and
alignment with international standards remain
significant. The devolution of labour matters under the
18th Amendment has fragmented provincial laws,
exacerbating disparities in governance, enforcement,
and coverage. Key issues include institutional
weaknesses, limited social protection for informal sector
workers, gender disparities, and the prevalence of
bonded and child labour. The paper utilizes the
Blavatnik School of Government’s Oxford Index of
Public Administration Framework to identify gaps and
draws comparative insights from global approaches,
including Malaysia, India, Brazil, and the UK. It
suggests actionable solutions, such as a unified
national labour policy, law alignment, and
strengthening institutional capacity to address
systemic deficiencies and promote equitable industrial
growth.

Quelque quatre années après l’instauration du nouveau régime contentieux des ordonnances, il nous a semblé utile d’en dresser un bilan provisoire , notamment à partir de l’étude de la jurisprudence administrative et constitutionnelle. On tentera de montrer qu’en dépit de sa lisibilité très perfectible, ce contentieux est en voie de stabilisation et de «normalisation». Il apparaît en effet que les requérants en ont plutôt bien intégré les complexités et que les interrogations sur d’éventuels points aveugles ont reçu, pour certaines, une réponse relativement claire dans le développement ultérieur de la jurisprudence. On constate également qu’après un pic en 2021 et 2022, le volume contentieux des ordonnances non ratifiées est en décrue, tant en termes de recours dirigés contre les ordonnances devant la juridiction administrative que de renvois de QPC au Conseil constitutionnel.

According to the traditional theory, the function of the executive is to administer the law enacted by the legislature, and in the ideal State, the legislative power must be exercised exclusively by the legislators who are directly responsible to the electorate. In England, theoretically it is only Parliament which can make laws. Looking to the legislative process, however, it is really the Government which makes the laws subject to parliamentary control. Even in the United States of America, where the doctrine of delegated legislation has not been accepted in theory under the doctrine of Separation of powers,in practice the legislature has entrusted legislative powers to the executive. In India, during 1973 to 1977, Parliament enacted about 300 statutes, but total number of statutory rules and orders reached more than 25,000. At the same time, there is inherent danger of abuse of the said power by executive authorities. The basic problem, therefore, is that of controlling the delegate in exercising his legislative powers. Today the question is not whether delegated legislation is desirable or not, but what controls and safeguards can and ought to be introduced so that the rule-making power conferred on the Administration is not misused or misapplied. 1 DELEGATED LEGISLATION ADMINISTRATIVE LAW (Government/Judicial/Precedent) (Delegated) DEFINITION Delegated legislation refers to those laws made by persons or bodies to whom parliament has delegated law-making authority. Where Acts are made by parliament, each principal Act makes provision for subsidiary legislation to be made, and will specify who has the power to do so under that Act. Delegated legislation can only exist in relation to an enabling Act. Delegated legislation contains the many administrative details necessary to ensure that the provisions of the Act will operate successfully. Regulations and Statutory Rules are the most common forms of delegated legislation. They are made by the executive or a minister and apply to the general population. According to Jain and Jain, the term 'delegated legislation' is used in two senses: (i) exercise by a subordinate agency of the legislative power delegated to it by the legislature, or (ii) subsidiary rules themselves which are made by the subordinate authority in pursuance of the power conferred on it by the legislature. According to Salmond, legislation is either supreme or subordinate. Whereas the former proceeds from sovereign or supreme power, the latter flows from any authority other than the sovereign power, and is, therefore, dependent for its existence and continuance on superior or supreme authority.

All’abuso del decreto-legge ha, da sempre, fatto da contraltare un procedimento di
conversione non meno denso di pratiche abusive, ove si considerino i ristretti tempi posti
dall’art. 77 della Costituzione. L’illegittimità di queste pratiche è risaltata particolarmente
all’indomani della sentenza n. 360 del 1996 della Corte costituzionale, che ha costretto il
continuum Governo-Parlamento a rinunciare alla prassi della reiterazione. Nell'articolo si
prende in esame l'ennesima prassi abusiva, consistente nell'abrogazione, con contestuale
sanatoria e riproduzione, di decreti-legge non ancora convertiti: se è prassi che risponde a
esigenze di concreto funzionamento della forma di governo, essa però al contempo propone
non pochi problemi teorici sul piano delle fonti, presenta complesse questioni interpretative
agli operatori giuridici e suscita seri dubbi di compatibilità costituzionale, anche alla luce della
giurisprudenza costituzionale che si è formata negli ultimi quindici anni.

Il semble difficile de faire l'impasse sur l'usage que le gouvernement français fit des ordonnances de l'article 38 de la Constitution au cours de la crise sanitaire dans le cadre d'une réflexion sur « gouverner et juger par temps de crise » compte tenu tant de l'ampleur du phénomène que des réactions qu'il suscita. Le phénomène est effectivement notable sur le plan quantitatif puisqu'en parallèle des différentes « vagues » de contamination sont apparues des « vagues d'habilitation » 1 dont l'écume normative peut sembler impressionnante. Aux fins de faire face aux conséquences directes et indirectes de la pandémie, ce sont ainsi 95 ordonnances « Covid » 2 qui furent édictées entre le 25 mars 2020 et le 22 septembre 2021, soit en à peine 1 an, 5 mois et 28 jours. Il indigna notamment une partie des membres du Parlement, dont la fonction normative se trouva neutralisée le temps de l'habilitation, qui virent dans ce recours massif un facteur supplémentaire de déséquilibre des rapports avec l'exécutif. Pourtant, de prime abord, tel qu'il est organisé par les textes, le recours aux ordonnances de l'article 38, qui n'est finalement que l'une des voies prévues par la Constitution pour permettre aux organes de l'exécutif d'exercer une fonction normative dans le champ de compétence du législateur 3 , semble ménager les prérogatives du Parlement ou à tout le moins ne pas les abaisser au profit du 1 Il s'agit en l'occurrence de quatre loisles lois n° 2020-290 du 23 mars 2020 d'urgence pour faire face à l'épidémie de covid-19, n° 2020-734 du 17 juin 2020 relative à diverses dispositions liées à la crise sanitaire, à d'autres mesures urgentes ainsi qu'au retrait du Royaume-Uni de l'Union européenne, n° 2020-1379 du 14 novembre 2020 autorisant la prorogation de l'état d'urgence sanitaire et portant diverses mesures de gestion de la crise sanitaire et n° 2021-689 du 31 mai 2021 relative à la gestion de la sortie de crise sanitairequi contenaient notamment des habilitations ayant pour finalité de permettre au Gouvernement de faire face aux conséquences directes comme indirectes de l'épidémie de Covid-19, le Conseil constitutionnel ayant censuré les dispositions de celles qui aurait pu contenir la cinquième vague (Cons. const., 9 nov. 2021, n° 2021-828 DC, § 48). 2 Quelques précisions s'imposent ici. Il ne s'agit pas de l'ensemble des ordonnances qui ont été adoptées au cours de la crise sanitaire mais seulement de celles contenant des dispositions ayant pour objet la gestion de la crise sanitaire étant alors entendu que certaines d'entre elles pouvaient contenir d'autres dispositions (v. ord. n° 2020-1447, 25 nov. 2020). Pour être plus précis, il faudrait sans doute parler de 647 articles contenus dans des ordonnances ayant pour but, exclusivement ou non, de traiter les conséquences directes et indirectes de la pandémie de Covid-19.

In this case study, we analyze the use of ICT
implementation in the judicial system of Pakistan: A Case
Study. The study investigates the benefits and challenges
of ICT in the judiciary of Pakistan, and how the workflow
of automation has been adopted systematically for the
maturity model. Study identify that how it is a benefit to
the public and what type of information may be extracted
and how? The study shows that the National Judicial
Policymaking Committee (NJPMC) plays a crucial role
in the automation of the judiciary, and the need for a
system that consolidates all information and collects
information for all judiciary data into one location. The
study proposes a model for potential creation and
production of a bird’s eye view for the current method,
which aids the researcher in data collection and opens a
new research direction. Unstructured interviews and
personal observations were conducted with lawyers,
judges of district judiciary officers of superior courts,
and government organizations. The study demonstrates
how ICT assists in understanding the status of cases,
devising strategies and new reforms to improve the
judiciary, determining the cause of delays in the disposal
of court cases, and reducing the backlog of cases. The
findings of this study can inform policymakers and
stakeholders about the benefits and challenges of ICT in
the judicial system of Pakistan, and provide insights into
potential areas for improvement

This study aims to identify the causes of delayed justice in Karachi district courts and analyse the critical causes of delay that the Pakistani judicial and legal system is confronting daily. Article 37 (d) of the Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan emphasise speedy, expeditious and inexpensive justice. World Justice Project Rule of Law Index has ranked Pakistan 130 out of 139 countries on various parameters, including civil and criminal courts. This research makes a comprehensive analysis of civil and criminal litigation in Pakistan for delay reduction. Unfortunately, less has been done previously in Pakistan and especially equal to none of quantitative. This research will focus on the quantitative aspect regarding the rule of law. Moreover, this study used factor analysis to identify the top contributing factors that cause subordinate courts delays. The linear regression model is used to determine and test the directions of the independent variables. This research measures significance of these factors to reject the null hypothesis at a 5% interval level. Similarly, linear regression is used for the cost of litigation to identify the relationship between independent and dependent variables, which is the "cost of each hearing". The results show that unnecessary adjournments on frivolous grounds are the most contributing factor of the delayed justice and filing of the miscellaneous applications on frivolous grounds, lack of skills and standardised level of training of both advocates as well as learned judges.

Kam kënaqësinë të ndaj me ju punimin tim titulluar “Juridiksioni këshillimor dhe juridiksioni gjyqësor i Këshillit të Shtetit”, si një nga aktet e Konferencës Shkencore Kombëtare, me temë “Këshilli i Shtetit për zhvillimin e së drejtës në Shqipëri (1929-1944)”. Ky punim synon të pasqyrojë një periudhë të pasur, por ende të panjohur dhe të pashfrytëzuar të historisë së së drejtës në Shqipëri, duke trajtuar dhe analizuar kompetencat unike të Këshillit të Shtetit si një organ kushtetues me rol të dyfishtë: këshillimor dhe gjyqësor.

Këshilli i Shtetit, ka luajtur një rol të rëndësishëm në zhvillimin dhe përmirësimin e legjislacionit shqiptar, si dhe në mbrojtjen e të drejtave individuale përballë organeve shtetërore. Për fat të keq, deri më tani, ky institucion ka mbetur i harruar nga hulumtimet shkencore, duke u përmendur rrallë në studimet mbi historinë e së drejtës.

Pikërisht për të mbuluar këtë mungesë të theksuar në literaturë, ky punim ofron një analizë të detajuar të kompetencave të Këshillit të Shtetit dhe mënyrës së ushtrimit të tyre, duke theksuar rëndësinë historike dhe juridike të këtij institucioni në zhvillimin e të drejtës publike në Shqipëri.

Përmbajtja:

Hyrje

1.Përgatitja e kodeve
1.1 Kodi Tregtar
1.2 Kodi i Procedurës Civile
1.3 Kodi Penal Ushtarak në kohë paqeje
1.3 Kodi i Procedurës Penale Ushtarake në kohë paqeje

2. Dhënia e mendimit për projekt-aktet e ndryshme me karakter normativ
2.1 Dhënia e mendimit mbi marrëveshjet ndërkombëtare
2.2 Dhënia e mendimit mbi projektligjet
2.3 Dhënia e mendimit mbi projekt-dekret-ligjet
2.4 Dhënia e mendimit mbi projekt-rregulloret
2.5 Krijimi dhe pasurimi i terminologjisë juridike

3. Dhënia e mendimit mbi konvencionet e konçensionet

4. Dhënia e mendimit për norma të errëta si edhe për çështje të ndryshme

5. Juridiksioni gjyqësor i Këshillit të Shtetit
5.1 Drejtësia administrative në Shqipëri, në vitet 1912-1944
5.2 Dy modele krahasimore për kompetencën gjyqësore të Këshillit të Shtetit
5.3 Këshilli i Shtetit, si gjykatë apeli administrativ
5.4 Këshilli i Shtetit si “Gjykatë e Lartë Administrative”
5.5 Këshilli i i Shtetit si “Gjykatë e Lartë Administrative” dhe kontrolli kushtetues

6. Zgjidhja e mosmarrëveshjeve të kompetencave

7. Ndjekja penale e nëpunësave të shtetit

8. Vlerësimi mbi kontratat administrative

9. Krijimi i përmbledhjeve të legjislacionit

Përfundime dhe konkluzionet

Bu çalışma, Büyük Devletlerin çıkarlarını uzlaştırmak için topladıkları jstanbul konjerwısının, jngiltere 'nin "Doğu" politikasındaki yerini ve Osmaniıjngiliz ilişkilerine etkisini ortaya koymaktadır. Bu çerçevede konferans süresince Rus temsilci Ignatiew ile "uyum içinde" çalışan Lord Salisbu,y 'nin takip ettiği Rus yanlısı ve anti-Türk politikanın jngiltere 'nin geleneksel Doğu politikasında meydana getirdiği ikilem izah edilmektedir.

In any nation, the judicial system is essential to maintaining the rule of law and administering justice. The trial levels and jurisdiction of Pakistan's legal system are examined in this abstract. Pakistan's judicial system is hierarchical, with multiple tiers to handle various case kinds and conflicts. District and session courts handle both criminal and civil cases at the lowest tier. Ascending the judicial hierarchy, every province comprises high courts that have the authority to hear appeals from subordinate courts and have original jurisdiction over certain cases. As the highest court in Pakistan, the Supreme Court is tasked with interpreting the constitution, assessing rulings from subordinate courts, and acting as the last court of appeals. Specialized tribunals are also in place to handle particular legal matters. Gaining an understanding of the Trial levels and jurisdiction in the Pakistani legal system is crucial to understanding the composition and operation of the legal system in that nation. This research illuminates the essential elements of Pakistan's legal system by offering a succinct synopsis of the trial levels and jurisdiction.

It was a case where the construction of the National Industrial Recovery Act was involved; the Court relied upon the public policy of the state and observed: "Labour unions, when instituted for mutual help and cooperation, and the attainment of legitimate ends are lawful. They are necessary part of the social structure. They are a vital 12 Statutory Constructions, Interpretation o f Laws, Earl T. Crawford, Pakistan Law House (Reprint 1998) with permission from Thomas Law Book Company, Saint Louis, p.371-72. 13 Quoted from Professor E.T. Crawford's op cit. book from Paragraph 212. It is the best book on the subject and its study is recommended to my students along with other books. They style is lucid and simple and the references are complete.

Este trabajo pretende reflexionar acerca del uso de la legislacion de urgencia durante el  primer ano de la X Legislatura en detrimento de la legislacion parlamentaria para afrontar la actual crisis economica. La practica mas reciente muestra que en estas circunstancias los Ejecutivos optan por aprobar decretos-leyes en lugar de proyectos de ley. Este articulo examina los mecanismos con que cuenta el Gobierno para facilitar disposiciones normativas inmediatas cuando asi lo requieren situaciones excepcionales o imprevistas. Para ello, se analizan los principales rasgos del Decreto-ley a la luz de una consolidada doctrina constitucional. Desde esta perspectiva, se propone la utilizacion de la ley aprobada mediante procedimientos legislativos abreviados como alternativa al uso desmedido de la legislacion de urgencia Palabras clave: Gobierno, Decreto-ley, Parlamento, Ley, procedimientos legislativos abreviados, fuentes del Derecho, Jurisprudencia constitucional. Abstract: This paper see...

El debate sobre el método y la forma de tramitación de las reformas constitucionales. II. Procedimientos legislativos abreviados y simultaneidad procedimental. III. La doctrina constitucional sobre la simultaneidad procedimental para tramitar reformas constitucionales. IV. Procedimientos abreviados como límites procedimentales a la reforma. V. Inobservancia de los límites procedimentales en la reforma constitucional: vicio in procedendo y lesión de un derecho fundamental.

Il contributo esamina la forma di governo delineata dallo Statuto Albertino dal 1848 fino all’avvento del fascismo e analizza le posizioni emerse. Dopo un excursus sulla sua origine, il lavoro prosegue con la disamina dei seguenti argomenti: la natura dello Statuto, per alcuni era una costituzione ottriata, per altri aveva natura pattizia; la sua funzione di strumento di garanzia contro il ritorno dell’assolutismo regio; di mezzo per limitare l’istituto monarchico; i problemi provocati dalla laconicità delle disposizioni statutarie sulla forma di governo. Il saggio elenca poi le tesi elaborate sulla forma di governo: monarchia costituzionale pura per alcuni; monarchia parlamentare per altri; regime dualistico per altri ancora, regime pseudoparlamentare secondo il parere di altra dottrina.

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Pakistan is a lower-middle income country in South Asia where forensic psychiatry is often not recognized as a distinct subspecialty of psychiatry. Although evolution toward this direction has begun, more development in this field is needed. Before Pakistan’s Mental Health Ordinance of 2001, much of the mental health legislation and intitutional infrastructure pertaining to the mentally ill offender can be traced back to the Indian Lunacy Act of 1912. The past two decades have witnessed important legal developments in the role of psychiatry in Pakistan’s criminal justice system. This has been seen through the devolution of health-care provision and by an extension of psychiatric service provision from the federation (federal government) to the four provinces. Despite the sparse resources allocated to psychiatry, competent yet scarce psychiatry residents are graduating from Pakistan’s accredited residency programs with an interest in forensic psychiatry. The objective of this article...

Background and purpose: Police commanders have difficult duties to manage police affairs. Meanwhile, their leadership style can have a great impact on some characteristics of police officers. The current research is descriptive in terms of its practical purpose and correlational in nature, and survey in terms of implementation method.
Method: The statistical population of this research was 2,200 employees of Bushehr police command; the sample size was considered to be 328 according to Cochran's formula. The data collection tool was the standard questionnaire of leadership style according to Hersey and Blanchard employees (1989) and the standard organizational voice questionnaire of Hames employees (2012). The total reliability value of leadership style questionnaires and staff voice were calculated as 0.910 and 0.856, respectively, which indicated a high level of instrument reliability. Also, for data analysis, structural equation modeling was used with the help of SmartPLS software.
Finding: The results showed that the leadership style with a coefficient of 0.460 is effective on the organizational voice of the employees. Dominant leadership style with an impact factor of 0.224 has a negative impact, and persuasive, participatory and delegating leadership styles have a positive and significant impact on the voice of employees. Also, another result indicates that there is a significant difference between the voice of employees in various leadership styles, so that the most voice of employees is assigned to employees with commanders with delegation style.
Conclusion: The result of the research findings is that the police commanders of Bushehr province should prioritize the delegative leadership style in order to increase the voice of the employees with this style.

El Congreso Nacional es una de las cabezas fundamentales del poder legislativo.En ejercicio de sus funciones aplica e interpreta la Constitución. Por razones que se expli-carán en este trabajo, ese rol del Congreso Nacional en tanto intérprete de la Constituciónaparece tratado por la doctrina solo secundariamente, prestando mucha más atención al rolde los tribunales. Este trabajo quiere comenzar a completar ese vacío. Para ello, ofrece loscriterios que deberían guiar la indagación de la labor interpretativa constitucional del Con-greso Nacional durante el proceso legislativo, identificando los momentos de ese proceso quesatisfacen esos criterios. Ello debiera comenzar a pavimentar el camino para reivindicar ladignidad de la ley en tanto lectura de la Constitución, de cara a la más extensa literatura quese centra en tribunales, sentencias y jurisprudencia.            

Sommario: 1. Introduzione. 2. Il quadro costituzionale. 3. Le caratteristiche principali della situazione attuale. 4. Lo stato della funzione legislativa tra XVI e XVII legislatura. 5. L'analisi dei dati. 5.1 I numeri complessivi delle fonti. 5.2. La prevalenza dell'iniziativa governativa. 5.3 Tempi e modi di approvazione e passaggi parlamentari. 5.4 La presenza di leggi di dimensioni significative. 5.5. Le leggi delega e i decreti legislativi. 5.6. I decreti-legge. 5.7. Le questioni di fiducia e i maxi-emendamenti. 5.8. La manovra di bilancio e la legislazione collegata. 5.9. L'attività emendativa. 6. Sintesi dell'esame. 7. Conclusioni. 1. Introduzione La presente relazione vuole tentare di fare luce sulle trasformazioni recenti della funzione legislativa. Le considerazioni che svolgeremo prenderanno in esame i dati contenuti nel "Rapporto sulla legislazione 2017-2018" a cura dell'Osservatorio sulla legislazione della Camera dei Deputati al fine di analizzare, criticamente, le principali tendenze sull'esercizio della funzione legislativa, per poi svolgere qualche considerazione finale circa il rapporto tra la legge parlamentare e gli atti aventi forza di legge e sui riflessi che le fonti hanno sulla forma di governo 1 .

In this book a specific aspect of the Kingdom of Hungary in the Arpadian age and of Hungarian ecclesiastical history is explored, the emergence and operation of the system of delegated papal jurisdiction and its interaction with local conditions from the beginnings in the late twelfth century until the end of the Arpadian age. Due to the reforms of the medieval papacy, which began in the late eleventh century, the popes acquired several new practical and conceptual tools that could be used both to restructure or reshape the Church and its various regions and to receive feedback from the local churches. Perhaps the best example of the latter (sending feedback tied to representation) is the work of the papal judges-delegate. The system of papal delegated jurisdiction on one hand supported the claims of the Apostolic See for the primacy in the Church, on the other hand the litigants played a role in shaping the legal frames and the practice of papal delegations as well. The author offers in his book an insight into the general tendencies of the system, meanwhile the Hun garian situation and the individual cases are analysed in detail as well. Gábor Barabás is an As so ciate Professor of the Institute of History at the University of Pécs (Hun gary). His main fields of in terest are several aspects of medieval Church history.

Shkrimi është prezantuar për herë të parë në Konferencën Shkencore me temë "Roli i Gjykatës Kushtetuese në zhvillimin e së drejtës", e organizuar nga Universiteti i Tiranës, Fakulteti i Drejtësisë, me datë 21.12.2022. Më tej shkrimi është retushuar dhe - në një formë më të zgjeruar të tij - është publikuar si pjesë integrale e Kreut I të librit "Dilema Kushtetuese III", me titull "Akti nënligjor normativ ndërmjet kontrollit kushtetues dhe gjyqësor".
Cështja kryesore që ky punim ka lidhet me nenin 118 të Kushtetutës. Konkretisht shtrohet për analizë dhe për zgjidhje pyetja se cilat janë organet shtetërore që gëzojnë zotësi kushtetuese për të prodhuar legjislacion të deleguar dhe cilave organe shtetërore mundet Kuvendi t'i njohë të drejtën për të miratuar akte nënligjore normative me karakter rregullimi universal.
Shkrimi në krye të herës e ka burimin nga një kontroll kushtetues incidental që kam nisur në Gjykatën e Apelit Durrës me objekt shfuqizimin e dispozitave ligjore që i njihnin dhe i njohin të drejtën Entit Rregullator të Energjisë Elektrike të miratonte dhe të miratojë aktin nënligjor normativ me objekt përcaktimin e modaliteteve të përllogaritjes dhe faturimit të dëmit ekonomik në marrëdhëniet e furnizimit me energji elektrike.

Serial litigants are a well-known phenomenon. This article deals with this phenomenon on two different levels using Israel as a test-case. First, we analyze the impact they have on the judicial system as a whole, and the institutional responses the judicial system uses in order to deal with serial litigants as well as the impact (both positive and negative) such serial litigants have on other litigants. Second, we analyze the personal motives of serial litigants and identify their common denominators, as well as what differentiates them. In this regard the article offers a unique approach by presenting the perspective of serial litigants and the human dimension behind their claims. We then show that serial litigants do not constitute a monolithic group, and suggest that courts have to take the differences between them into account. We further propose the formulation of systemic tools that take into account both the negative and the positive aspects of serial litigants in order to strike a proper balance between the optimal allocation of resources, and the right of access to justice.

On 30 th October, 2023, a new law styled as the Federal Prosecution Service Act, 2023 was enacted. The law was long awaited. It is an important legal development, but unfortunately, it did not get much attention in the media. The purpose of the instant write up is to examine the context of the new law, its salient features and its comparison with provincial prosecution laws. As a point of departure, it may be noted that the criminal justice system of Pakistan is two tiered i.e. federal and provincial. The relationship of the federation and the provinces is regulated through the constitutional law. Article 142 of the Constitution makes the criminal law, criminal procedure and law of evidence concurrent subjects for the sake of legislation and article 143 provides the primacy of federal criminal law over the provincial criminal laws. The two articles were rewritten at the time of the introduction of the Eighteenth Constitutional Amendment in 2010. Quintessentially, the two articles preserved the earlier scheme that kept the areas of criminal law, criminal procedure and law of evidence shared responsibility of the federation and the provinces. With this division of legislative design, historically, prosecution of criminal cases was done by police in Pakistan. Only after the introduction of Crown Prosecution Service in the United Kingdom in 1986, there was a realization to separate the functions of prosecution from policing in Pakistan. Consequently, through administrative measures, the prosecution was separated from police in the Punjab in the same year. The scheme, however, was reversed in 1991.

The complexity and the dynamic evolution of global finance require forms of transnational regulation that do not rely solely on traditional lawmaking and call for the participation of actors at multiple levels. One of the examples of these forms is regulation through legally non-binding guidelines and recommendations produced by the European Supervisory Authorities and enforced by national authorities. Even if these soft law acts cannot be considered as law in the traditional sense, their real impact is very much law-like. The only distinction from traditional legal acts seems to be the non-mandatory wording and the lack of direct enforceability or judicial control. Otherwise, these acts replicate the aesthetics of law. This article argues that the entire transnational administrative practice, which consists of soft rulemaking and the effective enforcement of such rules, is powerful because it successfully mimics law-making and law enforcement procedures.

If there is mutual trust and respect between the parliament and the court, there is little need to legislate the law on privilege issues. There is a written law, and more benefits will flow to those who destroy the parliament, and more and more members, committees and courts will be intervened. The government is untimely to influence the privilege of parliamentarians without worrying or favoring there is no doubt that parliaments and state legislatures need certain powers, privileges and immunities, otherwise they will not be able to operate independently or maintain their dignity and prestige.

If there is mutual trust and respect between the parliament and the court, there is little need to legislate the law on privilege issues. There is a written law, and more benefits will flow to those who destroy the parliament, and more and more members, committees and courts will be intervened. The government is untimely to influence the privilege of parliamentarians without worrying or favoring there is no doubt that parliaments and state legislatures need certain powers, privileges and immunities, otherwise they will not be able to operate independently or maintain their dignity and prestige.

The right of victims and the accused persons for the expeditious disposal of criminal cases is provided to every citizen of Pakistan. However, this is easier said than done. In reality, Pakistani judiciary faces the most daunting challenges to ensure that cases they handled are expeditiously disposed. Currently, the inordinate delay in the Pakistani judiciary in the disposal of criminal cases is not much in consistence with international documents, treaties, conventions, and Islamic law as well. Inordinate delay in determining and hearing of criminal cases undermines the public's trust in the judiciary. This unending and ongoing delay of pending cases is exacerbated by having more new cases as the population increases. This paper analyses the relevant laws and decided cases that illustrate delay in the disposal of criminal cases which amount to the violation of the rights of victims, accused persons, witnesses and those immediately related to them. Right to speedy justice or speedy trial is considered one of the fundamental procedural rights of a person accused of a criminal wrong in national as well as international law. 1 Right to speedy justice is enshrined in the constitutions and laws of many nations and is also found in numerous documents and treaties all over the world. Islam has also given the same weightage, if not more, to speedy justice to a common man. However, the issue is that the right to speedy justice is hampered by delay in the criminal justice system in Pakistan, when cases take way too long to be disposed. 2 Delay has been considered as one of the drawbacks of administration of justice in Pakistan.

The right of victims and the accused persons for the expeditious disposal of criminal cases is provided to every citizen of Pakistan. However, this is easier said than done. In reality, Pakistani judiciary faces the most daunting challenges to ensure that cases they handled are expeditiously disposed. Currently, the inordinate delay in the Pakistani judiciary in the disposal of criminal cases is not much in consistence with international documents, treaties, conventions, and Islamic law as well. Inordinate delay in determining and hearing of criminal cases undermines the public's trust in the judiciary. This unending and ongoing delay of pending cases is exacerbated by having more new cases as the population increases. This paper analyses the relevant laws and decided cases that illustrate delay in the disposal of criminal cases which amount to the violation of the rights of victims, accused persons, witnesses and those immediately related to them. Right to speedy justice or speedy trial is considered one of the fundamental procedural rights of a person accused of a criminal wrong in national as well as international law. 1 Right to speedy justice is enshrined in the constitutions and laws of many nations and is also found in numerous documents and treaties all over the world. Islam has also given the same weightage, if not more, to speedy justice to a common man. However, the issue is that the right to speedy justice is hampered by delay in the criminal justice system in Pakistan, when cases take way too long to be disposed. 2 Delay has been considered as one of the drawbacks of administration of justice in Pakistan.