Clastic Sedimentology

Surrounding and within the town of Loon Lake, Stevens County, Washington State, is a field of giant current ripples. Due to their concave, generally north/south orientation, the drainage to the east has been the traditionally interpreted source of the flood water. This flood is regarded as overflow from the large flood that inundated the Deer Park Basin in early or pre-Wisconsin time and created the giant current ripples northeast of Deer Park . Since the publication of LIDAR images of the Loon Lake area, additional insights regarding the direction and sources of water flow can be interpreted. This paper will point out that the gap at the south end of the Loon Lake body of water was likely an additional source of water input into the Loon Lake area during this flood and merged with the flow from the east.

The Maastrichtian -Danian age is well exposed around the Owerre-Ezukala area in the Anambra Basin of southeastern Nigeria. Two geologic units were encountered in the study area; Maastrichtian Ajali Formation and Danian Nsukka Formation. Outcrop sections were located, measured and described in detail following standard field methods. Pebble beds were sampled to evaluate their form indices which served as signatures of the paleoenvironment of deposition. The research methodologies were standard methods used in pebble morphological analysis. A total of one hundred and thirty pebbles were collected from three localities (Olo, Owerre-Ezukala and Ubaha). The following parameters were evaluated; Flatness Index (FI), Oblate-Prolate Index (OPI), Pebble form and Maximum Projection Sphericity (MPS). The mean values of FI, OPI and MPS (44.7%, -0.066, and 0.789 respectively), are suggestive of a fluvially agitated shallow marine environment (estuarine). Bivariate scatter plots of FI versus MPS and MPS versus OPI suggest fluvio-estuarine environment. Plots made on sphericityform diagram suggest a transitional setting (probably fluvial to estuarine). The sedimentary facies analysis supports a fluvioestuarine setting for the Maastrichtian -Danian age.

Pebble morphometry and grain size analysis were carried out in parts of Benin Formation exposed along Oron and environs to determine the depositional environment of the sediments. Quartz pebbles (900 pebbles) collected from 60 different locations around stream channels and quarries were subjected to axial measurement of long (L), short (S) and intermediate (I) axis. Fifteen (15) sediments were further subjected to sieve analysis. Results from morphometric studies shows that the pebbles are dominantly compact-bladed (CB) and elongate (E) with mean values for flatness ratio (FR), elongation ratio (ER), maximum projection sphericity index (MPSI), oblate-prolate index (OPI) and braided ratio (BR) as 0.48, 0.61, 0.67, 3.54 and 0.63 respectively with mean roundness value of 32%. Sieve analysis revealed that the sediments are dominantly medium-grained, well sorted, skewed to near symmetrical and leptokurtic to mesokurtic. Bivariate Plots of roundness versus elongation ratio, sphericity versus OP index, FI versus MPSI, and skewness versus sorting indicates deposition of the sediments predominantly in the fluvial environment. Thus, this study showed that the sediments in Benin Formation were deposited by fluvial depositional processes.

Dr. George Williams (Williams, 2005) provided me an opportunity to clarify the misunderstandings and misconceptions prevailing among some so-called tidal rhythmite researchers. Ancient tidal rhythmites, like their modern counterparts, can preserve a record of astronomically induced tidal periods. Unlike modern tide and tidal deposits, analysis of ancient tidal rhythmites, however, is not straightforward. This is simply because spectral analysis of ancient tidal cycles is not an actual time series, but is in fact a thickness series. Many geologists use standard timeseries techniques while analyzing ancient tidal rhythmites without concern to this basic fact! Complications are thus inherent with the analysis of ancient tidal rhythmite. In discrete-signal records the relationship between sediment thickness and time is more complex than for continuous signal records (Weedon, 2003, p. 28-32) Understandably, quality of rhythmite raw data and application of basic astronomical laws, if applicable at all, has nothing to do with these inherent complications. One of the major objectives

Clastic dikes are subvertical sedimentary features that cut through horizontally layered sediments, and they are common at the Hanford Site. Because of their cross-cutting relationship with the surrounding matrix, they have been proposed as potential fast paths from former contaminant discharge sites at the surface to the water table. However, little was known of the detailed hydrogeologic properties of the dikes, and detailed modeling of fl ow and transport through the dikes had not been performed. We excavated a 2-m-wide clastic dike at the Hanford Site and characterized it using an air minipermeameter, infrared imagery, and grain size analyses. Field injection experiments were also used to characterize the system. The resulting data were used to prepare a detailed numerical model of the clastic dike and surrounding matrix for a portion of the excavation. Unsaturated fl ow through the system was modeled for several recharge rates. The highly heterogeneous nature of the system led to complex behavior, with the relative fl ux rates in the matrix and clastic dike being highly dependent on the recharge rates that were imposed on the system. The occurrence of saturation-dependent complementary fl ow networks suggests that the contaminant release history may be important to the choice of remedial actions. Contaminants released under high fl ux conditions could be inaccessible under low fl uxes, and vice versa. This phenomenon may also help explain the occurrence of complex breakthrough patterns of contaminants at compliance planes.

DISClAIMER This report was prepared as an account of work sponsored by an agency of the United States Government. Neither the United States Government nor any agency thereof, nor Battelle Memorial Institute, nor any of their employees, makes ~ny wMI'anty, expressed or implied, or ~sumes .tny legal liability or responsibility for the .Jccuracy, completeness, or usefulness of any information, ~atus, product, or process disclosed, or represents that its use would not Infringe priv.Jtery owned rights. Reference herein to any specific commercial product, process, or service by trade name, trademark, manufacturer, or otherwise, does not necessarily constitute or imply its endorsement, recommendation, or favoring by the United States Government of any agency thereof, or Battelle Memorial Institute. The views and opinions of authors expressed herein do not necessarily state or reflect those of the United States Government or any agency thereof.

Results and Conclusions Based on the test results thus far, we have determined that the specific gravities for the all of the samples collected range from 2.36 to 2.67. The flood deposits are dominated by coarse sand and gravel and the Glacial Lake Columbia deposits are dominated by fine sands and silt/clay as seen in Table 1. Table 2 shows the calculated coefficients of uniformity and coefficients of curvature for the samples. Due to the COVID-19 Pandemic and the restrictions put in place, we were unable to continue with the hydrometer analyses for the remainder of the samples. The Lake Missoula flood deposits show remarkable consistency in this sample area as evidenced by the tight clustering of particle size distribution curves. There is more variability in the Glacial Lake Columbia deposits. This may be due to suspension of silt that was brought into Lake Columbia by the Lake Missoula floods; these silts may have settled out more slowly than the sand and gravel, resulting in mixing with the Lake Columbia deposits that formed shortly after flood intervals.

Results and Conclusions Based on the test results thus far, we have determined that the specific gravities for the all of the samples collected range from 2.36 to 2.67. The flood deposits are dominated by coarse sand and gravel and the Glacial Lake Columbia deposits are dominated by fine sands and silt/clay as seen in Table 1. Table 2 shows the calculated coefficients of uniformity and coefficients of curvature for the samples. Due to the COVID-19 Pandemic and the restrictions put in place, we were unable to continue with the hydrometer analyses for the remainder of the samples. The Lake Missoula flood deposits show remarkable consistency in this sample area as evidenced by the tight clustering of particle size distribution curves. There is more variability in the Glacial Lake Columbia deposits. This may be due to suspension of silt that was brought into Lake Columbia by the Lake Missoula floods; these silts may have settled out more slowly than the sand and gravel, resulting in mixing with the Lake Columbia deposits that formed shortly after flood intervals.

To explore carbonate reservoirs on a reservoir scale, we should investigate them on the micro-pore scale first. Carbonate reservoirs possess permeable and porous rocks containing hydrocarbon. The porosity of carbonate rocks consists of three extreme genetic groups, namely purely sedimentary pores, purely diagenetic pores, and fracture-induced pores. Although there is a broad range of intermediary pores, the three aforementioned genetic groups of porosity are indicative of three different geological processes. The keyword here is rocks. Carbonate rocks are composed of rock grains and may contain mud and cement. Skeleton and non-skeleton-based components along with mud and cement present substantial information regarding diagenetic and sedimentary media in which these rocks have been formed. Hydrocarbon reservoirs contain fluids, hence, concepts such as porosity, permeability, saturation, wettability, and capillary pressure are discussed to characterize them. After these preliminary studies/discussions, diagenetic processes and media are discussed to find out how the porosity of carbonate reservoirs is decreased, increased, or generated due to mechanical and chemical processes of different diagenetic media. In this paper, these challenges are investigated, and potential opportunities for exploration and exploitation of these valuable reservoirs are examined.

Textural analysis and pebble morphomentric were carried out on the sandstone deposits of Isuochi area in Anambra Basin, in an attempt to  reconstruct the paleoenvironment of deposition. Field observation shows that the sandstone samples, collected from various locations were  analyzed for sieve analysis, while two hundred fresh quartz pebbles that are greater than 2.00mm in diameter were collected for pebble  morphomentric. Morphomentric parameters include; elongation ratio, flatness index, oblate index, and maximum projection sphericity were computed. Bivariate plots of Maximum Projection Sphericity against Oblate Prolate Index show that about 69% of the pebbles are of fluvial origin,while 31% is surf, bivariate plots of Flatness Index against Maximum Projection Sphericity show that about 57% is of fluvial origin, while 43% show surf; these imply that the associated pebbles are of fluvial origin. Bivariate plots of sandstone textural parameters such as skewness against standard dev...

For the purposes of this plan, a cultural resource is any phenomenon with demonstrable association with prehistory, historical events or individuals, or extant cultural systems. Cultural resources include such things as archaeological sites, districts, and objects; standing historical structures, objects, or groups of either; locations of important historic events; or places, objects, and living or non-living things that are important to the practice and continuity of traditional cultures. The concept of cultural resource subsumes three terms~th more restrictive meanings. These are "historic property", "traditional use area", and "sacred" or "religious site." "Historic property" is a legal term and refers to any cultural resource that is listed on or considered eligible for the National Register of Historic Places. An historic property may be an archaeological site, an historical site, or a traditional use area, but not all such phenomena meet the criteria for being historic properties. A "traditional use area" is any place or landscape that is important to the continuation of a traditional culture. It includes such things as a community, a sacred site, or an area from which food and nonfood resources are obtained "Sacred sites" are places important to the practice of traditional religions. Their relationship to traditional religions makes it possible for sacred sites to become historic properties, but they are also considered under statutes designed to protect First Amendment guarantees to free practice of religion. Cultural resources are the representations of our past and the ties for some to the secular and sacred worlds of the present. They are in most cases fmite, unique, fragile, and nonrenewable; and in the rapid industrial, agricultural, and urban expansion of the modem world, they are disappearing at an ever increasing rate. Tangible remnants of the past tie us to the 1.2 • The Archaeological Resources Protection Act of 1979 (ARPA) 16 USC 470aa-47011. This Act prohibits the willful or knowing destruction and unauthorized collection of archaeological sites and objects located on federal lands. It also establishes a permitting system for archaeological investigations that requires consultation with concerned tribes prior to permit issuance. 1.3 Cultural Resource Plan. Hanford Cultural Resource Plan, Hanford Cultural Resource Plan, Hanford DOE Mission and Impacts being used for pennanent disposal of the wastes. The project expects to use up to 4 million cubic meters of borrowed soil and rock, taken from elsewhere on the Hanford Site. Advanced Reactors The Advanced Reactors Program at Hanford includes facility operations and technology development in support of the DOE's programs in nuclear energy and other energy research. Principal contributions are to the liquid metal reactor, space power technology, and fusion reactor technology. The major existing facilities in use include the FFIF and its supporting buildings (the Maintenance and Storage Facility, the Fuel Storage Facility, and the Training Center); the Fuel Cycle Maintenance and Examination Facility, including the Secure Automated (fuel) Fabrication Line (currently in layup status); the fuel assembly area; and the laboratories and high-bay facilities in the 300 Area. Research and Development The primary mission of the Research and Development Program at Hanford is technology development and deployment, from basic science to technology applications. This mission is broken down into two roles: 1) to develop and deploy technology for energy stability, for national defense, and to enhance the international competitiveness of'the United States; ap.d 2) to conduct strategic planning, advanced technology development, and environmental programs to support present and future Hanford missions. Current research and development activities focus on the following areas: • basic research in material, chemical, biological, environmental, geological, and engineering sciences • environment, health, and safety research with emphasis on the mechanisms for health and environmental effects of energy-related radiation and chemicals • waste management, with emphasis on treatment and containment technologies for radioactive and chemically hazardous wastes (commercial and defense), commercial spent nuclear fuel storage, monitored retrievable storage, geologic disposal, and waste systems integration • nuclear power systems, with emphasis on advanced reactors for civilian, space, and military applications; and on safety in light-water reactors 2.11 Cultural Resource Plan, Hanford DOE Mission and Impacts • national security technology, with emphasis on verification, production of Special Nuclear Materials, and strategic defense programs • energy supplies from renewable and alternative sources, with emphasis on concepts for biomass conversion, wind, and geothennal energy, and energy storage • energy conservation, with emphasis on efficient energy use in buildings and industrial processes. Work in these technologies is performed on the Hanford Site for the DOE and for other federal agencies, principally the Nuclear Regulatory Commission, the Department of Defense, and the Environmental Protection Agency. Research and development in support of these activities and non-defense/multiprogram activities are concentrated primarily in the 300 Area Support services, such as warehousing and fleet and large-equipment maintenance are located in the 1100 Area. Construction support services, some research and development activities, and the remaining health services are primarily located in or near the 3000 Area. Other services, such as administrative support, maintenance, fire protection, and security, are located throughout the Hanford Site. 2.2 POTENTIAL EFFECfS OF HANFORD SITE ACTIVITIES •ON HISTORIC PROPERTIES Any alteration of a historic property that changes the characteristics that qualify the property for inclusion to the National Register of Historic Places is considered an effect (36 CPR 800.9). In some cases, effects can be beneficial to historic properties. Building maintenance and renovation can, for example, prolong the life of structures, while Site security policies protect archaeological sites from vandalism. Other effects, however, may damage, destroy, or alter the feeling and association of a property, and so are considered adverse under 36 CPR 800.9. These impacts are treated here under a general category, "adverse effects." In this section the presumed adverse effects of past activities on the Hanford Site and the potential impacts of present programs are enumerated. Adverse effects are further defined, and the contribution of past and present activities performed or permitted under Hanford Site programs are briefly discussed Examples of activities that may adversely affect cultural resources are illustrated in Figure 2.4. 2.12 Construction Cultural Resource Plan, Hanford DOE Mission and Impacts Decommissioning FIGURE 2.4. Activities That May Adversely Affect Cultural Resources 2.13 Cultural Resource Plan, Hanford DOE Mission and Impacts 2.2.1 Categories of Potentially Adverse Effects Adverse effects are divided into seven categories: natural erosion, increased erosion, unauthorized collection and vandalism, direct damage or alteration, audible and visual effects, and habitat destruction. Namral Erosion Erosion is a process that proceeds in the absence of human activity. Most archaeological and paleontological deposits have been damaged at one time or another by erosion, and many no longer exist as a result. However, when federal agencies undertake management of public lands, and historic properties are found to exist on those lands, then it is the responsibility of the agency to minimize the effects of erosion on those properties. A management policy which programmatically ignores the effects of erosion~on properties under its stewardship is following a policy of neglect, and its program is thus having a potential adverse effect on those properties. Increased Erosion Removing ground cover, scarring the landscape with wheeled vehicles, and introducing domestic stock improve access to soil particles by wind and water. Thus, they accelerate erosion of archaeological deposits over natural rates. Unlike neglect, which may permit natural erosive destruction, increased erosion is the result of actions taken by an agency to permit grazing, remove vegetative cover, or allow off-road use of an area by workers or recreationists. Unauthorized Collection and vandalism Fossils, prehistoric and historical artifacts, and often human remains are considered to be desirable collectibles by a large segment of the public. Any area where public access is allowed and law enforcement patrols are infrequent is subject to unauthorized collection. Human graves are especially vulnerable because of the widespread belief that they contain large quantities of artifacts. Although it has been more severe in the past, this kind of effect is still a serious problem on most federal lands. Vandalism, the wanton destruction of natural or manmade objects, includes acts ranging from spray painting petroglyphs (ancient rock etchings, which often have sacred meaning) to driving up mountainsides to create tracks, burning or defacing old buildings, or bulldozing an archaeological site to remove it from the need for evaluation. This kind of impact can be severe in areas where the public is allowed access and where workers are given unlimited movement. 2.14 Cultural Resource Plan, Hanford DOE Mission and Impacts Direct Damage or Alteration Construction, renovation, land leveling, and decommissioning of facilities can directly affect cultural resources; often, these activities have the most severe impacts of all seven categories. Subsurface and surface artifact deposits may be disrupted or obliterated, buildings destroyed, or the unique characteristics of a building altered or removed. Buildings may lose their...

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The study of tidal rhythmites, involving sedimentology, time-series analysis and astronomy, can contribute to understanding the history of the Earth's rotation and the Moon's orbit. It is regrettable, therefore, that the paper by [Mazumder R., Arima M., 2005. Tidal rhythmites and their implications. Earth-Sci. Rev. 69, 79-95.] on tidal rhythmites and their implications contains errors of methodology and unsubstantiated speculation that could confuse and mislead. Moreover, contrary to the introductory statement of Arima (2005, p. 79) [Mazumder, R., Arima, M., 2005. Tidal rhythmites and their implications. [79][80][81][82][83][84][85][86][87][88][89][90][91][92][93][94][95] that the analysis of ancient tidal rhythmites bis not straightforwardQ, the analysis need not be complicated. Problems will arise, however, if the rhythmite raw data are of poor quality and basic astronomical laws are misapplied. Such shortcomings are to be found in the paper under discussion.

The Maastrichtian-Danian age is well exposed around the Owerre-Ezukala area in the Anambra Basin of southeastern Nigeria. Two geologic units were encountered in the study area; Maastrichtian Ajali Formation and Danian Nsukka Formation. Outcrop sections were located, measured and described in detail following standard field methods. Pebble beds were sampled to evaluate their form indices which served as signatures of the paleoenvironment of deposition. The research methodologies were standard methods used in pebble morphological analysis. A total of one hundred and thirty pebbles were collected from three localities (Olo, Owerre-Ezukala and Ubaha). The following parameters were evaluated; Flatness Index (FI), Oblate-Prolate Index (OPI), Pebble form and Maximum Projection Sphericity (MPS). The mean values of FI, OPI and MPS (44.7%,-0.066, and 0.789 respectively), are suggestive of a fluvially agitated shallow marine environment (estuarine). Bivariate scatter plots of FI versus MPS and MPS versus OPI suggest fluvio-estuarine environment. Plots made on sphericityform diagram suggest a transitional setting (probably fluvial to estuarine). The sedimentary facies analysis supports a fluvioestuarine setting for the Maastrichtian-Danian age.

Wadi As Suqah, Makkah Governate, Western Saudi Arabia, has surficial sediments covering 300-422 square kilometers. The deposits may be used for any suitable construction material. Therefore, thirty-one samples of the Quaternary sands were collected from different locations along the study area to achieve this goal. The natural surficial grain sizes of Wadi As Suqah deposits in the Makkah region were assessed geotechnically, spatially, and mathematically. Rarely comprehensive exploration methodology, such as sieve analysis, 3D modeling, triangulation, and GIS, have been used to categorize the content percentage of grain sizes. Statistics and mathematics were also used to evaluate the correlations and assess the relationship between the fractions. This sophisticated approach is adapted for the first time on Wadi As Suqah, which concludes different results compared to previous studies. According to the unified soil classification system, gravel, sand, and fine had an average content of...

The depositional Environment of Odoro-Ikpe, South East Nigeria was interpreted using pebble morphometry and sieve analysis. A field observation, sieve analysis and pebble morphometric analysis was carried out on the area which comprises of conglomerate, pebbles, sand stone and intercalation of shale's and clay. The lithofacies observed are lateralitic layer, pebbly sand, alternating layers of sand and conglomerates and layers of massive sand stone. The graphic mean and skewness of the grain size analysis shows that the sediments are very coarse which indicates a high energy environment. Graphic standard deviation gives a clue that the sediment were very poorly sorted, which is indicative of a fluvial deposit with high energy , while kurtosis result revealed very coarse sediment deposits. This implies that the particles were not transported very far. Pebble

Field mapping was carried out on Bima sandstone from Dumne and its environs with the aim to understand the geology and determine the paleoenvironment of deposition. The integrated (outcrop study with granulometric and pebble morphometric) studies were used to achieve this aim. Based on outcrop studies, nine (9) lithofacies were identified from the proximal alluvial fan facies to the mid-fan braided river: massive, matrix-supported, gravel-dominated facies (Gmm); matrix-supported gravel (Gmg); clast-supported gravel stratified (Gh); gravel stratified trough cross-bedded sandstone (Gt); trough cross-bedded sandstone (St); planar cross-bedded sandstone (Sp); ripple cross-laminated sandstone (Sr); massive sandstone (Sm) and silt and mud (Fsm). The outcrop sampled materials were subjected to granulometric and morphometric analyses. The result of the granulometric shows that the Bima sandstones of the study area have an average graphic mean (Mz) of 0.82 (coarse grains), an inclusive graph...

During the Fraser Glaciation (marine oxygen isotope stage 2), floods from ice-dammed glacial Lake Missoula affected large parts of Washington and Oregon. Flood deposits are interbedded with glaciolacustrine sediment in glacial Lake Columbia, and occur as thick slackwater sediments in southern Washington and in the Willamette Valley, Oregon. This thesis examines some of the issues surrounding this flooding, such as how many times glacial Lake Missoula emptied, whether glacial Lake Missoula is the only source of the floods, and the timing of these events. The sedimentology and stratigraphy of a new section of rhythmically stratified glaciolacustrine sediment in the glacial Lake Missoula basin confirms that the ice dam failed at least a few dozen times, exposing the lake bottom. Current indicators and clast lithologies of flood sediments in glacial Lake Columbia indicate that glacial Lake Missoula was the source of these flood beds. Additionally, rock magnetic studies identify hematite in fine-grained flood sediment that settled out of the water after the high-energy floodwaters had passed. The source of the hematite is the Belt-Purcell Supergroup in Montana, which supplied sediment to glacial Lake Missoula. Optical ages, a radiocarbon age, and paleomagnetic secular variation records help to constrain the timing of glacial Lake Missoula flooding. Optical dating was successful on three samples of fluvial sand deposited during initial filling of glacial Lake Missoula and on loess deposited above Mount St. Helens set S tephra, which is a timestratigraphic marker found in glacial Lake Missoula flood deposits. One sample of fossil plant detritus was found below at least 37 flood beds in glacial Lake Columbia. Lastly, four paleomagnetic secular variation records constrain the timing of glaciolacustrine units in glacial Lake Missoula and flood beds in glacial Lake Columbia and the Willamette Valley. All glacial Lake Missoula units and flood units studied in this thesis date to the later part of the Fraser Glaciation, between ~14.2 and 11.6 14 C ka BP.

The Bida formation exposed in Doko locality, Bida town appeared Massive, poorly sorted with localized sedimentary structures. The formation shows three lithofacies: mf, ssf and sf respectively. The formation grades into more matured upward, the pebbles are found within the sf unit as lenses and as scattered pebbles. Vernier caliper was used to measure the Longest, intermediate and shortest axes that are mutually perpendicular for each pebble. These values were used to compute different morphometric parameters as a single variable including MPSI, OPI, FR, ER, R and CF. These parameters were also used as dependent variables in bivariate plots to characterize the depositional process.

Pebbles have been reported in the Sandstones units of the Kerri - Kerri Formation, but their application as a tool for interpreting the depositional environment is limited. In this context, 510 quartz pebbles and 16 sandstone samples were collected for pebble morphometric and grain size analyses in order to assess the depositional environment of the formation. For the pebble morphometric study, the long (L), intermediate (I), and short (C) axes of each pebble were measured. For each pebble, four geometrical parameters related to depositional environmental studies were computed, these are: Maximum Projection Sphericity, Oblate Prolate Index, Coefficient of Flatness, and Disk - Road - Index. The standard sieving method was used to sieve the sandstone samples. Mean grain size (Mz), sorting (I), skewness (SKI), and kurtosis (KG) were determined as statistical parameters of the grain size. The mean value of the computed pebble shape parameters for the pebbles of the Kerri – Kerri Formati...

The Okanagan Centre section is the stratotype for marine oxygen isotope stage (MIS) 4 sediments (Okanagan Centre Drift) in the southern interior of British Columbia, Canada. Previous work suggested that these sediments record two glacial and two interglacial cycles. This study reports on detailed sedimentological and geochronological investigations of lithostratigraphic units comprising the Okanagan Centre sequence, revealing successive deposition of subaqueous and subaerial outwash, a subglacial till and glaciolacustrine sediments during MIS 4. A limiting optical age of 113 AE 8 ka defines the base of this sequence. Sedimentological, paleopedological, optical dating and tephrochronological data from sediments near the middle of the sequence reveal soil development (MIS 3) in eolian sediments deposited on a river terrace overlying a deglaciated surface. Within these sediments, identification of Mt. St. Helens set C tephra suggest sedimentation between 50 and 35k 14 C a BP. Optical dating corroborates the tephrochronology and suggests that this surface formed after $52 AE 7 ka. The record of MIS 2 glaciation is restricted to deglaciation, and overlies MIS 3 sediments above an unconformity possibly related to regional subglacial meltwater erosion. Eolian sediments containing Mt Mazama set O tephra ($7.62k cal a BP) cap the sequence.

Temperature in degrees Fahrenheit (°F) may be converted to degrees Celsius (°C) as follows:°C =(°F-32)/1.8. Concentrations of chemical constituents in water are given either in milligrams per liter (mg/L) or micrograms per liter (µg/L). Datums Horizontal coordinate information is referenced to the North American Datum of 1983 (NAD 83). Vertical coordinate information is referenced to the National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929 (NGVD 29). Altitude, as used in this report, refers to distance above the vertical datum.

and Zoning, for coordination with government agencies in Linn County. Description of Map Units Unit Description Holocene Qds ALLUVIUM (DeForest Formation)-One to three meters of massive to weakly stratified, grayish brown to brown loam, silt loam, clay loam, or loamy sand overlying less than three meters of poorly to moderately well sorted, massive to moderately well stratified, coarse to fine feldspathic quartz sand, pebbly sand, and gravel. Unit also includes colluvial deposits derived from adjacent map units. Seasonally high water tables occur in this map unit.

Clastic dikes are subvertical sedimentary features that cut through horizontally layered sediments, and they are common at the Hanford Site. Because of their cross-cutting relationship with the surrounding matrix, they have been proposed as potential fast paths from former contaminant discharge sites at the surface to the water table. However, little was known of the detailed hydrogeologic properties of the dikes, and detailed modeling of fl ow and transport through the dikes had not been performed. We excavated a 2-m-wide clastic dike at the Hanford Site and characterized it using an air minipermeameter, infrared imagery, and grain size analyses. Field injection experiments were also used to characterize the system. The resulting data were used to prepare a detailed numerical model of the clastic dike and surrounding matrix for a portion of the excavation. Unsaturated fl ow through the system was modeled for several recharge rates. The highly heterogeneous nature of the system led to complex behavior, with the relative fl ux rates in the matrix and clastic dike being highly dependent on the recharge rates that were imposed on the system. The occurrence of saturation-dependent complementary fl ow networks suggests that the contaminant release history may be important to the choice of remedial actions. Contaminants released under high fl ux conditions could be inaccessible under low fl uxes, and vice versa. This phenomenon may also help explain the occurrence of complex breakthrough patterns of contaminants at compliance planes.

Clastic dikes are subvertical sedimentary features that cut through horizontally layered sediments, and they are common at the Hanford Site. Because of their cross-cutting relationship with the surrounding matrix, they have been proposed as potential fast paths from former contaminant discharge sites at the surface to the water table. However, little was known of the detailed hydrogeologic properties of the dikes, and detailed modeling of fl ow and transport through the dikes had not been performed. We excavated a 2-m-wide clastic dike at the Hanford Site and characterized it using an air minipermeameter, infrared imagery, and grain size analyses. Field injection experiments were also used to characterize the system. The resulting data were used to prepare a detailed numerical model of the clastic dike and surrounding matrix for a portion of the excavation. Unsaturated fl ow through the system was modeled for several recharge rates. The highly heterogeneous nature of the system led to complex behavior, with the relative fl ux rates in the matrix and clastic dike being highly dependent on the recharge rates that were imposed on the system. The occurrence of saturation-dependent complementary fl ow networks suggests that the contaminant release history may be important to the choice of remedial actions. Contaminants released under high fl ux conditions could be inaccessible under low fl uxes, and vice versa. This phenomenon may also help explain the occurrence of complex breakthrough patterns of contaminants at compliance planes.

Pebbles have been reported in the Sandstones units of the Kerri - Kerri Formation, but their application as a tool for interpreting the depositional environment is limited. In this context, 510 quartz pebbles and 16 sandstone samples were collected for pebble morphometric and grain size analyses in order to assess the depositional environment of the formation. For the pebble morphometric study, the long (L), intermediate (I), and short (C) axes of each pebble were measured. For each pebble, four geometrical parameters related to depositional environmental studies were computed, these are: Maximum Projection Sphericity, Oblate Prolate Index, Coefficient of Flatness, and Disk - Road - Index. The standard sieving method was used to sieve the sandstone samples. Mean grain size (Mz), sorting (I), skewness (SKI), and kurtosis (KG) were determined as statistical parameters of the grain size. The mean value of the computed pebble shape parameters for the pebbles of the Kerri – Kerri Formati...

Dr. George Williams (Williams, 2005) provided me an opportunity to clarify the misunderstandings and misconceptions prevailing among some so-called tidal rhythmite researchers. Ancient tidal rhythmites, like their modern counterparts, can preserve a record of astronomically induced tidal periods. Unlike modern tide and tidal deposits, analysis of ancient tidal rhythmites, however, is not straightforward. This is simply because spectral analysis of ancient tidal cycles is not an actual time series, but is in fact a thickness series. Many geologists use standard timeseries techniques while analyzing ancient tidal rhythmites without concern to this basic fact! Complications are thus inherent with the analysis of ancient tidal rhythmite. In discrete-signal records the relationship between sediment thickness and time is more complex than for continuous signal records (Weedon, 2003, p. 28-32) Understandably, quality of rhythmite raw data and application of basic astronomical laws, if applicable at all, has nothing to do with these inherent complications. One of the major objectives

Tidal rhythmites are unequivocal evidence of marine conditions in sedimentary basins and can preserve a record of astronomically induced tidal periods. Unlike modern tide and tidal deposits, analysis of ancient tidal rhythmites, however, is not straightforward. This paper highlights the advances made in the tidal rhythmite research in the last decade and reviews the methodologies of extracting lunar orbital periods from ancient tidal rhythmites, the mathematics behind the use of tidalites, and their limitations and uncertainties. We have shown that analysis of ancient tidal rhythmite may help us to estimate the palaeolunar orbital periods in terms of lunar days/month accurately. Determination of absolute Earth-Moon distances and Earth's palaeorotational parameters in the distant geological past from tidal rhythmite, however, is ambiguous because of the difficulties in determining the absolute length of the ancient lunar sidereal month.

This booklet provides directions for a driving tour consisting of sites providing evidence of the Ice Age Floods in and around Moses Lake, Washington. The route consists of stops at Washington State Parks from Sun Lakes State Park at the north to Wallula Gap to the south. This documented was created for the first field trip sponsored by the Wenatchee Valley Erratics Chapter of the Ice Age Floods Institute

Lasted about 2.6 MYBP to 13,000 years before present Most recent Ice Age Flooding-13 to 15,000 Evidence for at least 100 catastrophic floods Average time between floods was 40-60 years Recent Evidence for older catastrophic flooding May be as early as 1.5-2.5 MYBP Early Pleistocene 780 TYBP Middle Pleistocene 130 TYBP Catastrophic Ice Age Floods C 1 \r.'l. 1\!lll UNITED STATtS C C OIU!AlOli 4 STOP 1-Moses Coulee and Moses Coulee Bar The lower end of Moses Coulee, almost 1 mile wide and 750 feet deep, shows magnificently flood-truncated spurs between hanging tributaries. The deposit at its mouth is the dissected main remnant of a great fan built by floods out of Moses Coulee (Bretz, 1930, 1969). See Figure 6. The high part of the deposit stands well out into Columbia Rive r valley. The gravel is almost entirely basalt, evidence of derivation from Moses Coulee, not from the up valley Columbia. During glacial advance, the Okanogan Lobe blocked the Columbia valley but not yet the Moses Coulee intakes. Floodwater could not descend the Columbia during the Moses Coulee floods , so these floods built a great fan across and up the Columbia River, evidently blocking it. But the surface of the bar is marked by giant current dunes whose steeper down valley slopes indicate down valley flow. Therefore this early-glacial bar was overtopped in late-glacial time by great flood that mainly reworked the basaltic gravel. This surficial reworked gravel extends into a fan that diverges into and up Moses Coulee, showing that no great flood simultaneously poured down Moses Coulee. This late flood is doubtless that which overtopped Rock Island bar just up valley and which overtopped the "great terrace" up valley of Entiat.

Petrological characteristics of sandstones outcropping in Bende and Isimkpu areas was carried out using sieve analysis and pebble morphometric studies in determination of the paleodepositional environment for Sandstone facies of the Ameki Group. Lithostratigraphic studies show that the area is underlain by sandstones, calcareous sandstone, shales, mudstones and clays. This has been organized into: Unit A: Idima junction shale; B: Bende sandstone; C: Onuinyang calcareous siltstone and D: Isimkpu sandstone, from oldest to youngest. Representative sandstone samples were collected from outcrops widely distributed in the area. Results show that the sandstones are fine to coarse grained and the pebbles are rounded to sub-rounded and dominantly bladed to elongate. Computed percentages indicate the sandstones are dominantly well sorted, negatively skewed and extremely leptokurtic. Mean values for the flatness index, elongation and oblate-prolate index (OPI) are 0.47, 0.70 and 2.37 respectively. The synthesis and integration of these values indicated fluviatile with subordinate littoral/shallow marine setting for sandstones of Ameki Formation in the study area.

Based on integrated investigation of seismic multi-attribute, well logs, cores and geological data, the sedimentary facies and lithofacies analysis are conducted in the Paleogene Pinghu Formation of the Xihu Depression, East China Sea. The Pinghu Formation is the main hydrocarbon-bearing strata and source rock interval in the Xihu Depression, and represents a second-order sequence. It can be subdivided into three third-order sequences, (from base to top: SQ1, SQ2, and SQ3), from SQ1 to SQ3 Sequences displayed almost similar depositional patterns, displaying different characteristics of lithology and facies distribution. The fan shaped and lobate proximal tidal-delta facies are deposited at the western edges with relatively strong hydrodynamics, while the lobate and belt shaped scattered tidal-flat facies are deposited at the center of the area with relatively weak hydrodynamics. From SQ1 to SQ3, the distribution of the sand-rich tidal-delta facies evolves from a large range to a small, then larger again, are predominantly influenced by the hydrodynamics, tectonic and topography. This study demonstrates facies analysis using sequence stratigraphy and seismic sedimentology provide useful insight to Paleogene oil and gas exploration in East China Sea Shelf Basin and other similar basins and can also be effectively used in areas which lack well or outcrop data.

Pebbles taken from the bed of the Cretaceous Abeokuta Formation paraconglomerate near the Oluwa River were used to infer the depositional setting and the nature of the source area, through the integration of bivariate and ternary (sphericity-form and Zingg diagrams) analyses. Deposition in a river environment is indicated by the high sphericity values, ranging from 0.59 to 0.88 (average 0.70). Also, bivariate plots of the maximum projection sphericity (ψp) vs. oblate-prolate index (OPI) and flatness index (FI) vs. maximum projection sphericity (ψp) point to the domination of fluvial processes. Dominantly elongated, compact elongated, compact and compact-bladed pebbles are typical for sedimentary regime with prevalence of fluvial over beach processes. Co-existence of various pebbles shapes (mainly disc, rod-, and sphere-shaped), despite of the similar, predominantly quartz composition, may occur due to the different clast fabrics. This heterogeneity also indicates various transport d...

During the Fraser Glaciation (marine oxygen isotope stage 2), floods from ice-dammed glacial Lake Missoula affected large parts of Washington and Oregon. Flood deposits are interbedded with glaciolacustrine sediment in glacial Lake Columbia, and occur as thick slackwater sediments in southern Washington and in the Willamette Valley, Oregon. This thesis examines some of the issues surrounding this flooding, such as how many times glacial Lake Missoula emptied, whether glacial Lake Missoula is the only source of the floods, and the timing of these events. The sedimentology and stratigraphy of a new section of rhythmically stratified glaciolacustrine sediment in the glacial Lake Missoula basin confirms that the ice dam failed at least a few dozen times, exposing the lake bottom. Current indicators and clast lithologies of flood sediments in glacial Lake Columbia indicate that glacial Lake Missoula was the source of these flood beds. Additionally, rock magnetic studies identify hematite in fine-grained flood sediment that settled out of the water after the high-energy floodwaters had passed. The source of the hematite is the Belt-Purcell Supergroup in Montana, which supplied sediment to glacial Lake Missoula. Optical ages, a radiocarbon age, and paleomagnetic secular variation records help to constrain the timing of glacial Lake Missoula flooding. Optical dating was successful on three samples of fluvial sand deposited during initial filling of glacial Lake Missoula and on loess deposited above Mount St. Helens set S tephra, which is a timestratigraphic marker found in glacial Lake Missoula flood deposits. One sample of fossil plant detritus was found below at least 37 flood beds in glacial Lake Columbia. Lastly, four paleomagnetic secular variation records constrain the timing of glaciolacustrine units in glacial Lake Missoula and flood beds in glacial Lake Columbia and the Willamette Valley. All glacial Lake Missoula units and flood units studied in this thesis date to the later part of the Fraser Glaciation, between ~14.2 and 11.6 14 C ka BP.

The present paper discusses a palaeoenvironmental interpretation of the Oligocene Ogwashi Formation (Niger Delta Basin, Nigeria) through morphometric analysis of pebbles, a research method essentially depending on the quantitative evaluation of pebble size and shape which change during transport processes in a range of depositional environments. The relationship of bivariate and ternary-diagram plots of independent functions was determined from freshly exposed sandstone sections in quarries at Ibusa, near Asaba, Nigeria. The grain size of pebbles ranges from fine (11.00 mm) to very coarse (41.33 mm), with a mean size of 21.05 mm (coarse pebbles). A bivariate plot of the flatness index vs maximum projection sphericity index shows 37% of the pebbles to fall within a beach (marine) environment, and 33% within a fluvial environment; the remaining 30% are uncertain. The maximum projection sphericity index vs oblate-prolate index bivariate plot indicates that 47% of pebbles fall within a ...

Pebble morphometric study was carried out for the Ogwashi-Asaba Formation so as to understand its paleodepositional environment. The three axes; the long (l), the intermediate (i) and the short (s) were measured for the two sets of one hundred and forty (140) and one hundred and fifty (150) pebbles collected from two outcrops of the Ogwashi-Asaba Formation. Pebble form indices such as Maximum Projection Sphericity (MPSI), coefficient of flatness (FR %), elongation ratio (ER) and oblate-prolate (OP) index were computed from these measurements. Roundness was estimated using Sames image sets. The mean values of the pebble form indices ranges from 49.78 to 52.02 for coefficient of flatness (FR %). 0.71 to 0.73 for sphericity, 2.60 t0 3.53 for oblateprolate index, and 0.66 to 0.69 for elongation ratio. The calculated indices are suggestive of fluvial sedimentation for the Ogwashi-Asaba Formation. Bivariate plots of coefficient of flatness (FR %) versus maximum projection sphericity index (MPSI) and plots of sphericity (MPSI) versus oblate-prolate index (OP) are also indicative of fluvial origin. Scatter plots of roundness versus elongation ratio shows that 100% of the pebbles are in a littoral field. Plots of bivariate parameters such as simple skewness versus simple standard deviation, and second moment skewness versus second moment standard deviation suggests the Ogwashi-Asaba Formation as a product of the fluvial depositional processes.

Pebbles have been reported in the Sandstones units of the Kerri - Kerri Formation, but their application as a tool for interpreting the depositional environment is limited. In this context, 510 quartz pebbles and 16 sandstone samples were collected for pebble morphometric and grain size analyses in order to assess the depositional environment of the formation. For the pebble morphometric study, the long (L), intermediate (I), and short (C) axes of each pebble were measured. For each pebble, four geometrical parameters related to depositional environmental studies were computed, these are: Maximum Projection Sphericity, Oblate Prolate Index, Coefficient of Flatness, and Disk - Road - Index. The standard sieving method was used to sieve the sandstone samples. Mean grain size (Mz), sorting (I), skewness (SKI), and kurtosis (KG) were determined as statistical parameters of the grain size. The mean value of the computed pebble shape parameters for the pebbles of the Kerri – Kerri Formati...

Harmonic analysis of the sandstone foreset-laminae thickness series from the Chaibasa tidal rhythmite, India, clearly shows that a normal semidiurnal tidal system with synodic month of ϳ32 lunar days was in effect during the late Paleoproterozoic (2100-1600 Ma). The minimum number of solar days in a lunar sidereal month was ϳ31. Published quantitative tidal-rhythmite data of others in combination with data derived from the Chaibasa tidal rhythmite indicate long-term stability of the lunar orbit and progressive increase in the Earth-Moon distance during the Proterozoic.

Tidal rhythmites are unequivocal evidence of marine conditions in sedimentary basins and can preserve a record of astronomically induced tidal periods. Unlike modern tide and tidal deposits, analysis of ancient tidal rhythmites, however, is not straightforward. This paper highlights the advances made in the tidal rhythmite research in the last decade and reviews the methodologies of extracting lunar orbital periods from ancient tidal rhythmites, the mathematics behind the use of tidalites, and their limitations and uncertainties. We have shown that analysis of ancient tidal rhythmite may help us to estimate the palaeolunar orbital periods in terms of lunar days/month accurately. Determination of absolute Earth-Moon distances and Earth's palaeorotational parameters in the distant geological past from tidal rhythmite, however, is ambiguous because of the difficulties in determining the absolute length of the ancient lunar sidereal month.

Tidal rhythmites are unequivocal evidence of marine conditions in sedimentary basins and can preserve a record of astronomically induced tidal periods. Unlike modern tide and tidal deposits, analysis of ancient tidal rhythmites, however, is not straightforward. This paper highlights the advances made in the tidal rhythmite research in the last decade and reviews the methodologies of extracting lunar orbital periods from ancient tidal rhythmites, the mathematics behind the use of tidalites, and their limitations and uncertainties. We have shown that analysis of ancient tidal rhythmite may help us to estimate the palaeolunar orbital periods in terms of lunar days/month accurately. Determination of absolute Earth-Moon distances and Earth's palaeorotational parameters in the distant geological past from tidal rhythmite, however, is ambiguous because of the difficulties in determining the absolute length of the ancient lunar sidereal month.