Buddhist History

釈尊の存期の古代インドでは、マガダ国で興った沙門運動の宗教文化がバラモン思想を基盤とする主流社会に統合されていなかった(Bronkhorst, 2007)。自由思想を傍聴するそのマガダの宗教運動に属して発展した仏教も、ヴェーダ聖典の権威に対抗し（佐々木, 2002: 11）、バラモン主義を受け入れなかった（佐々木, 2017: 17）。まだ婆羅門と社会的な地位を競わず、婆羅門文化との接触的交渉の中で興隆した原始仏教の歴史的背景には、早い段階から婆羅門と仏教者の間に一定の交流があったことが史実として認められる。しかし、その交錯が仏教思想の構築にどのように影響したか、バラモン教と仏教の相互関係の詳細については、依然として不透明な点が多い。パーリ仏典の中には、同じく原始仏教の時代からの口承を組むと伝統的に重んじられるが、経蔵と比べ、律蔵でのバラモン思想の影響は僅かである。律蔵文献におけるバラモン思想との関係、経蔵とは異なり多岐的かつ決定的な影響力には至らず、比較的限定的に受容された様相に留まる。これは、先行研究であまり注目されてこなかった顕著な相違である。当時の僧伽内外の社会秩序に呼応し規定化されたパーリ律伝承の中には、仏教者がバラモン教とその思想といかに向き合ったかが記録されているとすれば、パーリ律は両者の相互関係の解明に重要な資料となり得る。本研究では、バラモン教との関わり方の変遷に基づき、仏教思想の成立を検証する研究手法（Levman, 2021: 131）の観点から、パーリ律蔵におけるバラモン教の影響を考察し、バラモン教と仏教思想の歴史的関係を明らかにすることを試みる。

Touching on everything from anti-caste traditions to the Buddhist legend of Matanga and Persian and Arabic perspectives on caste, 'Textual Lives of Caste Across the Ages' edited by Prathama Banerjee presents much fresh knowledge about Indian antiquity The antecedents of caste are generally mired in speculation and popular mythography. Among modern scholars of the subject, the question of the past, and therefore, that of religion, religiosity, culture, and tradition, are placed within the curated Sanskritic or Indological stream. This means that, apart from reading widely and having an adaptive appetite for the period, enthusiastic scholarship also demands a study of the present. Contemporary scholarship on caste is dominated by the social sciences. The rise of democratic opportunities for the outcastes along with selfreflection done at the state and societal level has provoked a colourful curation of intellectual motifs within these disciplines. Still, there is an absence of knowledge about the past.

Chanting plays an indispensable role in Buddhism, preserving the profound teachings, unwavering concentration, transformative meditation, and sacred meritmaking. In addition to its philosophical significance, the rhythmic chanting of sutras also offers restorative psychological benefits. This paper thoughtfully explores the healing potential of Buddhist chanting, considering humanity's pressing spiritual needs. To begin with, chanting is traced as an ancient oral tradition that artfully facilitates memorization and transmission. In addition, it examines the core moral principles meaningfully espoused by foundational Buddhist chants like the Three Refuges, Five Precepts, and Paritta. Chanting's resonances are also vividly illustrated, showing how it spreads boundless compassion and invokes infinite blessings from celestial beings. Recent research has convincingly demonstrated that chanting enhances focused attention, mindfulness, and reduces distress. Multidimensional intention and profound spiritual meaning may further strengthen these effects. Additionally, the experiential analysis insightfully explores how chanting provides practitioners with refuge by directing awareness beyond temporal concerns into planes of ultimate meaning. Finally, the paper illustrate how chanting can engender mystical insight and unravel the illusion of emptiness. To summarize, this paper conclusively substantiates the remarkable mental health benefits of chantingdemonstrating its vital importance as a spiritual technology for healing and transformation.

Buddhism originated in Bodhagaya, near Gaya in present-day Bihar State of India during the 6 th century BCE. After that the Buddha wandered and taught his Dhamma throughout the northern India, especially in the Buddhist middle-land of Gangetic plain for 45 years. Around 200 years after the Buddha's Mahāprinibbāna, Emperor Asoka of Magadha Kingdom became the great patron of Buddhism and sent Buddhist missionary groups to far-off regions of Indian subcontinent, Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia. North east India may have received the Buddha Dhamma for the first time through one of Emperor Asoka's Buddhist missionary groups. Earliest Buddhist historical and archaeological evidence in north east India is found in the State of Assam, which is dated back to around 100 BCE. Since the earliest historical times, north east India is the cross road between northern India, Upper Myanmar and southwestern China through southwest silk road, which played a vital role for the transmission of not only trade and commerce but also religions and culture. In present time, there are a few minority tribes in north east India who profess Theravāda Buddhism but their unique culture has been studied less than they deserve. This paper 2 explores the past history, present conditions and future prospect of Theravāda Buddhist communities in north east India through historical texts and archaeological evidence. Theravāda Buddhist communities in northeastern India are the continuation of ancient Buddhist culture as the unique cultural heritage of contemporary India.

As training and development become integral to organizational strategy and enhancing leadership capabilities, evaluation frameworks must adapt to emphasise deeper, long-term impacts. This review traces the progression of training impact evaluation, from fundamental theories like Kirkpatrick’s Four-Level Model (1959) to recent advancements in digital learning analytics (2020–2025). It consolidates over sixty years of literature to explore the evolving objectives of evaluation - from merely assessing performance to fostering behavioural change, and now considering ethical, spiritual, and contextual factors. Faith-based leadership institutions in India, such as HIAL, provide a distinctive setting where training evaluations should be culturally sensitive and mission-driven. The review identifies persistent issues in pre-training benchmarking, longitudinal assessments, and measuring intangible learning outcomes. In reaction to these challenges, a hybrid evaluation framework is suggested, combining traditional models with adaptive, behaviourally anchored tools and in-depth qualitative research. This refined approach highlights the necessity of strategic, context-aware evaluation for leadership development in both local and international environments.

Keywords: Training Evaluation, Kirkpatrick Model, ROI, Behavioural Change, Leadership Development, Learning Analytics, Faith-Based Institutions, India

The Yogācārabhūmi, compiled by Saṅgharakṣa, was first introduced to China by An Shigao's abridged translation (T607, Daodi jing 道地經), later, in 284 CE, Dharmarakṣa produced a more comprehensive version (T606, Xiuxing daodi jing 修行道地經). Lacking extant Sanskrit or Pali parallels, the text is difficult to interpret literally, and the differences between T607 and T606 add to the analytical challenges. However, a substantial section in both translations describing omens of impending death in the sick exhibits systematic parallels with Indian Āyurvedic texts, such as the Caraka-saṃhitā and Suśruta-saṃhitā. These parallels help clarify the ambiguous passages through comparative analysis. This study explores the translation strategies of An Shigao and Dharmarakṣa in introducing Indian medical concepts to China. An Shigao adopted a localization strategy, replacing foreign terms with analogous Chinese concepts. His terminology, corroborated by usage in Eastern Han or earlier Chinese texts-particularly excavated manuscripts-supports claims in the Chu sanzang ji ji regarding his expertise in medicine and divination. By contrast, Dharmarakṣa's Xiuxing daodi jing sought greater fidelity to the Indian source material, offering a more detailed and systematic presentation of Āyurvedic knowledge. However, Dharmarakṣa did not entirely abandon An Shigao's localization approach. He adopted a balanced strategy that combined faithful representation with cultural adaptation, reflecting the broader capacity of his more diverse and sophisticated audience to engage with complex and extensive foreign knowledge.

ENSEÑANZAS SOBRE LA TIERRA PURA DEL MAESTRO SHENG YEN
Sintetizando lo tradicional y lo moderno
- Charles B. Jones -

En la historia de la tradición budista de la Tierra Pura china, muchos pensadores han considerado mucho las dos preguntas interrelacionadas de la naturaleza de la Tierra Pura y el significado del renacimiento dentro de ella. En el período premoderno, predominaron dos ideas que frecuentemente chocaban. La primera era la posición de “dirección oeste” o “tierra pura en otra dirección” (xīfang / tāfāng jìngtǔ 西方 / 他方淨土), en la que el practicante buscaba renacer en una Tierra Pura existente al oeste del mundo actual. La segunda era la “tierra pura solo-mente” (wéixīn jìngtǔ 唯心淨土), en la que la Tierra Pura era coextensiva con este mundo y se manifestaba cuando la mente del practicante estaba lo suficientemente purificada como para verla. Sin embargo, a finales del siglo XIX y principios del XX, surgió otra forma de pensar sobre la Tierra Pura como parte del movimiento comúnmente conocido como “Budismo Humanista” (rénjiān fójiào 人間佛教). Conocido como “La Tierra Pura en el Reino Humano” (rénjiān jìngtǔ 人間淨土), esta buscaba involucrar a los practicantes en el trabajo del bienestar ambiental y social para aliviar el sufrimiento y mejorar las vidas en el mundo actual.

Aunque estos desarrollos se atribuyen con mayor frecuencia al monje reformador Taixu (Tàixū 太虛, 1890-1947), un análisis de sus obras lo revela como un modernizador ambiguo, que mezcla lo tradicional y lo moderno de manera asistemática. El Venerable Dr. Sheng Yen (Shèngyán 聖 嚴, 1930-2009), a menudo considerado un portador de la tradición del Budismo Humanista, adoptó un enfoque más sintético y moderno de la Tierra Pura. En su visión madura, las posturas previas de la Tierra Pura “dirección oeste” y  “sólo-mente” no son incompatibles entre sí ni tampoco con el concepto moderno de “Tierra Pura en el Reino Humano”. De hecho, pueden verse como etapas en un camino. Como él lo dice, el camino de la Tierra Pura puede comenzar con una práctica relativamente simple como la invocación oral del nombre de Amitābha y conducir a una realización de la propia mente en la práctica de “invocación del Buda Chan” (niànfó chán 念佛禪), con el objetivo final de realizar tanto la sabiduría como la compasión de un bodhisattva a través de las prácticas gemelas de realizar tanto la Tierra Pura como la propia mente mientras se establece simultáneamente la Tierra Pura en el Reino Humano. En esta presentación espero contextualizar las enseñanzas de la Tierra Pura del Ven. Dr. Sheng Yen en la historia general del Budismo Tierra Pura chino y permitir que los lectores vean su forma innovadora de reconciliar enfoques aparentemente incompatibles.  - C.B.Jones

"Los dioses y diosas hindúes están muy presentes en el budismo. La proliferación de deidades hindúes en el panorama conceptual budista puede sorprender a quienes creían que las enseñanzas de Buda eran racionales y que debían considerarse un sistema ateo de emancipación personal. Sin embargo, desde la perspectiva del historiador de la religión, la presencia de dioses y seres sobrenaturales hindúes no debe descartarse como una degradación de las enseñanzas budistas ni como una concesión a las predisposiciones mentales de los seguidores budistas. Su presencia tampoco debe entenderse únicamente como una mitificación o psicologización de los símbolos religiosos. Por el contrario, la inclusión de deidades hindúes en los discursos budistas puede verse como un proceso de reconciliación social, ya que los encuentros entre los modos de pensar y las visiones del mundo budistas e hindúes probablemente han generado tensiones y conflictos entre personas plenamente conscientes de las tradiciones con las que se identifican."

"Los dioses y diosas hindúes están muy presentes en el budismo. La proliferación de deidades hindúes en el panorama conceptual budista puede sorprender a quienes creían que las enseñanzas de Buda eran racionales y que debían considerarse un sistema ateo de emancipación personal. Sin embargo, desde la perspectiva del historiador de la religión, la presencia de dioses y seres sobrenaturales hindúes no debe descartarse como una degradación de las enseñanzas budistas ni como una concesión a las predisposiciones mentales de los seguidores budistas. Su presencia tampoco debe entenderse únicamente como una mitificación o psicologización de los símbolos religiosos. Por el contrario, la inclusión de deidades hindúes en los discursos budistas puede verse como un proceso de reconciliación social, ya que los encuentros entre los modos de pensar y las visiones del mundo budistas e hindúes probablemente han generado tensiones y conflictos entre personas plenamente conscientes de las tradiciones con las que se identifican." - Francis Brassard

La presente investigación examina las relaciones históricas y teóricas del pirronismo con el budismo temprano. Después de realizar un estudio de los hallazgos históricos del budismo temprano y la campaña de Alejandro Magno en la India para destacar la relación histórica entre ambas filosofías, se lleva a cabo una exposición de la Catuskoti (Tetralemma) del budismo temprano y la Époje pirrónica, según Sexto Empírico. Con la identificación de las características de cada fórmula, se procede a realizar una comparación entre ambas, para resaltar sus relaciones teóricas.

Written in Portuguese, this book aims at being a general introduction to the Indian buddhist tradition. Published by a major brazilian publisher dedicated to the Humanities and Spirituality, Editora Vozes, the book is divided into seven chapters or lessons, which explore Buddhism's three "jewels" or "treasuries: the Buddhathe Master, together with the Dharma, "the teachings", and the community ("The Sangha"). The first lesson, or chapter, is called "The way of the Buddha" where his life and the ancient hindu religious and cultural contexts are described. In chapter number two we introduce the buddhist teachings (Dharma) through the Four Noble Truths (1. suffering; 2. The origins of suffering; 3. The possibility of overcoming suffering and 4. The way to overcoming suffering), and the Noble Eightfold path, a set of practises that, ideally, should lead one to the experience of awakening (buddhi): 1.

This paper examines the role of Theravāda Buddhist monks in Bangladesh, how Buddhist monks actively demonstrated compassion by providing free formal education to disadvantaged and underprivileged indigenous children in the Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT), Bangladesh. Since the independence of Bangladesh, many Buddhist monks have played a significant role in promoting educational advancement, social welfare, fostering peace, and enhancing harmony within multicultural ethnic and religious minority societies, particularly in CHT, regardless of race and religion in the region. Their contributions have left a substantial impact on indigenous children in the region, many of whom have since achieved professional success across diverse fields around the world. This study explores how Buddhist monks put compassion into action through accessible general education for disadvantaged indigenous communities, thereby fortifying community bonds and contributing to regional peace and harmony. Despite the critical nature of this work, previous scholarship has largely overlooked the contributions of Bangladeshi Buddhist monks in promoting peace and harmony through education in the CHT.
However, this research addresses this gap by documenting the significant
educational and societal contributions of Bangladeshi Buddhist monastics, emphasizing their role in promoting peace across CHT’s multicultural and multilingual indigenous societies. Additionally, this study highlights and preserves the legacies of key monastic figures whose efforts have significantly expanded educational access and exemplified Buddhist compassion in action in the region.

Tāranātha (1575-1634), a great accomplished master of the Jo-naṅ-pa sect of Tibetan Buddhism, was famous in Tibet as the author of many treatises on Tantra and philosophy but especially known for his masterly work History of Buddhism in India (rGya-gar-chos-'byuṅ).

Sārnāth (Mrigadāva, Migadāya, Rishipattana, Isipatana) is the Deer Park where Siddhārtha Gautama delivered his first sermon called The Turning of the Wheel of the Dhamma (Dhammacakkappavattana) which resulted into the birth of Buddhism [1], and Buddhist Saṃgha was founded by the Buddha with Pan ˜cavaggiyas, yassa, and others.

This study focuses on the religious and political persecutions inflicted upon
the religious and ethnic minority groups living in the Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT) of
Bangladesh. Preceding studies by scholars, researchers, writers, and columnists have
widely ignored the religious and political persecution against the Jumma people in
CHT. Many studies depict the sequential and chronological events of the injustice
being exercised upon the ethnic indigenous people, but there are no studies
highlighting the religious causes of such violence and how it is connected to the
politics in the region. Hence, I am undertaking this initial study to conduct a baseline
investigation through the qualitative research method. The study seeks to explore how
and why religion and politics are linked to violence and conflicts; how and why the
Bangladesh security forces, law and order agencies, and other state machinery are
involved in such violations of rights; and the role of the civic polity that comes to state
power in an alternate manner. I am especially eager to examine serious violations of
human rights that have occurred repeatedly over the years, such as rape, forced
marriage, gang rape, murder, and more generally, the conversion of ethnic women and
girls, as well as communal violence on a broad scale. The study consists of in-depth
online interviews, and the research sample for this study covers 26 adults aged
between 20 and 60 years from ethnic communities in CHT.
The findings so far obtained clearly reveal that in Bangladesh, religion and
politics are used by the state to ensure its control of the region. The findings also
reveal the mechanism of control and abuse used by the Muslim Bengali settlers, the
Islamic fundamentalist quarters, and the local ruling party leadership. Another aspect
of the state's legitimated violence is the utilization of armed stooges of indigenous
origin to achieve the state’s religiopolitical objectives. 
Keywords: Persecution / Jumma people (ethnic indigenous and religious minority
groups) / religio-political violence / conflicts / military / law enforcement personnel.

阿育王的“破僧法敕”包含三個平行的碑銘文本，是目前可追溯到的最早關於佛教寺院制度的文獻記載，其內容記錄了對僧伽內部衝突的禁止。儘管這些材料早期曾在國際學術界引發廣泛關注，然而，在過去的半個世紀里，相關的研究成果卻未能繼續擴充。本文在全面回顧與總結國內外現有相關學術成果的基礎上，考察了這些“法敕”中的若干關鍵術語，旨在更系統地梳理佛教藏經成立之前，關於律典和僧團中佛教制度化的相關信息，深化對早期佛教制度化過程的認識。
The Aśokan “Schism Edict(s),” which consist of three parallel inscriptions, represent the earliest known datable records of Buddhist monastic institutions. These edicts prohibit internal conflicts within the Sangha, thereby providing critical insights into early Buddhist governance. Although they initially received considerable international scholarly attention, research concerning these texts has stagnated over the past fifty years. This study conducts a comprehensive review and synthesis of existing scholarship, concentrating on key terms within the “Schism Edict(s).” By analyzing these terms, the study seeks to systematically reconstruct information related to the institutionalization of Buddhism, particularly the language of monastic regulations and organizational structures, prior to the formal compilation of the Buddhist canon. In so doing, it illuminates the formative processes that influenced early Buddhist institutional development.

Buddhism had been adapted in Myanmar from northeastern India by monks, traders, and travellers throughout Pyu civilization around the 200 BCE to the 9th century CE. Especially Theravada Buddhism is absorbed by court circle and ordinary people on whom they were true believed in Buddha's philosophy as in the 'Ye Dharma Hetu' stanza ~ "Of all those things that from a cause arise, Tathagata (Buddha) the cause thereof has told; And how they cease to be, that too he tells, this is the doctrine of the Great Recluse." During the age of maritime trade, Islamization and Christianisation had been successfully established from wealthy commercial communities in the ports of Southeast Asia to Muslim and Christian states. The point of view on the matter is that the other religions cannot overwhelm the whole country because of the credibility of Theravada Buddhism in which most Myanmar people are resting. Throughout history, Myanmar Buddhists are unable to reform religious revolutions to other religions because of their belief system, which is not polarized. Therefore, Theravada Buddhism movement will be moving forward to the future. Nowadays, many of the Buddhists and diverse minority religious groups are living in harmony in the Buddhism boundary in Myanmar.

This study explores the two distinct forms of Buddhism in Bangladesh-Bengali and Jumma Buddhism. Bengali Buddhism, associated with the Barua community and integrated into the dominant Bengali-Muslim identity. On the other hand, Jumma Buddhism is refers to the multicultural and linguistic indigenous Buddhist communities in the Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT). It investigates how the Bangladeshi state imposes Bengali identity and Islamic culture on diverse these multi-ethnic, multilinguistic indigenous populations by classifying Jumma peoples as "small or sub-tribal" rather than "indigenous or Jumma." This legal and cultural framing facilitates identity erasure and cultural assimilation. The study employs a documentary research approach and qualitative textual analysis of constitutional documents, scholarly works, and human rights reports to examine how these identities are constructed and marginalized. Findings reveal that although Bengali and Jumma Buddhists appear to coexist, Jumma Buddhists continue to face systematic exclusion, state-led violence, and loss of cultural autonomy. This marginalization contradicts the core Buddhist values of mettā (loving-kindness), karuṇā (compassion), and upekkhā (equanimity). The study calls for formal recognition of Jumma identity and the application of Buddhist ethical frameworks to promote meaningful coexistence, peacebuilding, and the protection of indigenous rights within the national framework of Bangladesh. This study suggests to explore the lived experiences of the Jumma Buddhists and the role of Buddhism in resisting cultural homogenization for further research in this field.

The dissemination of Buddhism to Champā (present-day central Vietnam) encompasses a dynamic process, ushering in a period of cultural and religious exchange and interaction between India and Southeast Asia. The study aims to explore the historical and cultural, and social contexts that facilitated the spread of Buddhism and Buddhist heritages in Champā. It shows the transmission of Buddha Dhamma through the Maritime Trade Routes, and lasting legacy of Buddhism in Champā. Emphasis is placed on understanding how the Buddhism is dissemination in Champā, analysing why it is easily assimilated to localization within the Champā society. Research runs under the qualitative research methodology through an interpretation multidisciplinary approach, including inter-textual, historical and cultural analysis. Buddhism was introduced into Champā in the second century CE by Buddhist monks and lay traders, through the Maritime Silk Route. Champā became the destination for monks traveling by sea route to Southeast Asian countries from Sri Lanka and India. The early stages of Buddhist transmission in Champā were mainly Śrāvakayāna, with the two sects Saṃmitīya and Sarvāstivāda. After the eighth century, Mahāyāna predominated and even Vajrayāna was practiced in Buddhist monastery Đồng Dương. It means that the Buddha Dhamma has been fully and wholly transmitted from Indian school of Śrāvakayāna, Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna to Champā. Especially Champā Buddhism is a symbol of the luminous crossroads of civilizations, where Buddhism and Indian religious mingled with local beliefs. For example, Avalokiteśvara cult as the supreme lord (Lokeśvara), who gave birth to the universe and the gods of Hinduism, demonstrate a strong ability to integrate and assimilate indigenous cultures. The Avalokiteśvara worship bears the strong imprint of the Kāraṇḍavyūha Sūtra, deeply influenced by Śaivism, record in stelae from the seventh to fourteenth centuries are the Lokeśvaras such as Lakṣmīndra-Lokeśvara, Pramudita-Lokeśvara, Mahīndra-Lokeśvara, and Ratna-Lokeśvara. Buddhism had a profound impact on Champā society; as the philosophy of harmony, liberation (mokṣa), peace and happiness (nirvāṇa) to united Champā people. Basic on that Champā Buddhism remains various heritages as such Buddhist art, spiritual legacy and cultural harmony. In short, the dissemination of Buddhism became a symbol of shared historical, spiritual and cultural legacy between India and Champā.

ओदंतपुरी महाविहार बिहार के एक प्रमुख बौद्ध शिक्षा केंद्र के रूप में प्रसिद्ध था, जिसकी स्थापना 8वीं शताब्दी में पाल सम्राट गोपाल ने की थी। यह महाविहार पाल काल में  बौद्ध धर्म के अध्ययन और प्रसार के लिए एक महत्वपूर्ण स्थल था। ओदंतपुरी में बौद्ध धर्म के विभिन्न संप्रदायों – हीनयान, महायान और तंत्रयान का अध्ययन किया जाता था, और यह कई महान विद्वानों का घर था। यहां शिक्षा प्राप्त करने वाले प्रमुख आचार्य दीपंकर श्रीज्ञान और अभयकरगुप्त जैसे महान आचार्य थे, जिन्होंने तिब्बत और अन्य क्षेत्रों में बौद्ध धर्म का प्रसार किया। महाविहार की वास्तुकला अत्यधिक प्रभावशाली थी, जिसमें मुख्य मंदिर और चारों दिशाओं में स्थित महाविद्यालय शामिल थे। यहां लगभग 12,000 भिक्षु रहते थे। ओदंतपुरी महाविहार ने तिब्बत में बौद्ध धर्म के प्रसार में महत्वपूर्ण भूमिका निभाई, खासकर जब तिब्बती विद्वान यहां के ग्रंथों का अनुवाद करने के लिए आए थे। 12वीं शताब्दी में तुर्क आक्रमणकारियों ने ओदंतपुरी पर आक्रमण कर इसे नष्ट कर दिया, और इसके बाद यह महाविहार कभी भी पुनः स्थापित नहीं हो सका। प्रस्तुत शोध पत्र में ओदंतपुरी महाविहार के ऐतिहासिक योगदान का पुरातात्विक एवं साहित्यिक दृष्टि से अवलोकन किया गया है।

This study explores the dynamic interplay between Authentic Theravada Buddhism and Traditional Buddhism in Myanmar, framing them as the “Pure Path” and “Spirit Dance” that together define the nation’s spiritual identity. Authentic Theravada, rooted in the Pali Canon’s Four Noble Truths and Eightfold Path, represents a disciplined pursuit of nirvana, upheld by the Sangha’s rigorous practice and Myanmar’s historical claim to doctrinal purity from the Pagan Kingdom to modern meditation movements. In contrast, Traditional Buddhism blends these teachings with pre-Buddhist Nat worship, astrology, and folk rituals, emphasizing lay practice and immediate worldly concerns—protection, prosperity, survival—through vibrant festivals and daily rites. Drawing on historical analysis, theological comparison, and social dynamics, this research traces their evolution from animist roots through colonial disruptions to the post-2021 coup era, as of April 2025. It reveals a spectrum rather than a schism: Theravada’s clarity coexists with Traditional syncretism, reflecting Myanmar’s unique resilience amid crisis. Case studies, such as Shwedagon Pagoda and Taungbyone Nat Festival, illustrate this duality, while implications highlight cultural adaptability and global parallels with Buddhist syncretism in Thailand and Tibet. Amid ongoing conflict, this study underscores how discipline and devotion intertwine, offering insights into faith’s role in identity and survival, with future research beckoned toward regional variations and urbanization’s impact.

This article briefly reviews the history of Buddhist adap-tation to cultures, focusing on two key goals that Bud-dhist traditions have maintained over that history: the primary goal of supramundane nirvāṇa and enlighten-ment and the secondary goal of applying Buddhist pow-ers of knowledge and practice to meet mundane needs of people and societies. It discusses two kinds of constructive reflection Buddhists have employed in support of those two goals in pre-modern and modern times. In light of that history, it then offers its own critical-constructive reflections, first on positive contributions of modernistic engaged Buddhism, then on a problematic tendency in it to succumb to modern assumptions in ways that reduce its ability to offer im-portant alternatives to them (assumptions about ultimate human values and primary causes and kinds of suffering). Regarding that problematic tendency, it notes that the priority of the primary and secondary Buddhist goals have become unconsciously reversed in some quarters of modern engaged Buddhism, how this reversal rests on modern assumptions that contradict core Buddhist teachings, behavioral signs of this reversal, and deleterious effects that follow from it.

This article briefly reviews the history of Buddhist adaptation to cultures, focusing on two key goals that Buddhist traditions have maintained over that history: the primary goal of supramundane nirvāṇa and enlightenment and the secondary goal of applying Buddhist powers of knowledge and practice to meet mundane needs of people and societies. It discusses two kinds of constructive reflection Buddhists have employed in support of those two goals in pre-modern and modern times. In light of that history, it then offers its own critical-constructive reflections, first on positive contributions of modernistic engaged Buddhism, then on a problematic tendency in it to succumb to modern assumptions in ways that reduce its ability to offer important alternatives to them (assumptions about ultimate values and primary causes and kinds of suffering). Regarding that problematic tendency, it notes that the priority of the primary and secondary Buddhist goals have become unconsciously reversed in some quarters of modern engaged Buddhism, how this reversal rests on modern assumptions that contradict core Buddhist teachings, behavioral signs of this reversal, and deleterious effects that follow from it.

This article aims to compare characteristics of Bodhisattva from the scriptures of Buddha's Story of "Subduing Mara" with Theravada's Jina Mahanidana and Mahayana's Lalitavistara. The results show that Bodhisattva's characteristics can be catagorised into two characteristics: Firstly, the same characteristics of Bodhisattava between Jina Mahanidana and Lalitavistara beliefs are properties of Bodhisattva, concepts of Bodhisattva, and roles of Bodhisattva which is divided into two roles i.e. the roles of Paramita (meritorious act) and subduing Mara. However, the characteristics of Bodhisattva in Theravada were built like a human who uses wisdom to solve problems, whereas Mahayana Bodhisattvas were built as a superhuman. The other thing is the Bodhisattva's characteristics that are only found in Mahayana's Lalitavistara, consisting of Bodhisattvanubhava, Bodhisattvavarakaya, and Bodhisattvakiriya. These were built to spread the faith among Mahayana's laymen. Building such the characteristics is related to Mahayana belief, showing that Bodhisattva has a supreme status, magical power, and ultimate mercy to help all the living from their sufferings.

En la sociedad occidental, el concepto de "mérito" se ha convertido en un pilar fundamental de cómo evaluamos el valor personal. Se entiende generalmente como el resultado del esfuerzo individual: "si trabajas duro, lo mereces", es la premisa, y está profundamente arraigado en nuestro acervo cultural. Lo vemos en las películas, las series,

On July 23, 2021, fifteen minutes into the opening ceremony of the Tokyo Olympics, Japanese dancer Moriyama Mirai took the stage alone in a nearly empty stadium. Draped in white and illuminated by a spotlight, Moriyama's body gracefully unfolded from a crouched position, moving with a deliberate and forceful elegance before settling into a posture reminiscent of Balasana (child's pose)-a symbolic stance encapsulating both life and death. Throughout the performance, Moriyama's pale and expressionless face conveyed a palpable sense of unease and even terror, heightened by the eerie and unsettling music that accompanied the dance. Indeed, the performance was followed by a reminder of the social tenebrosity that the venue's strong spotlight could not dispel: a silent tribute to those who perished during the global COVID-19 pandemic. It was therefore fitting that Moriyama performed the ankoku butō (often abbreviated to butō)-literally the "dance of darkness"-developed by avant-garde choreographer Hijikata Tatsumi (1928-1986) in post-World War II Japan, when the disintegrating empire was reordered and reconstructed under American occupation. Drawing on the raw features, unpolished behaviors, and overtly sexualized expressions of marginalized individuals such as criminals, prostitutes, the ill, and the impoverished, Hijikata endeavored to acknowledge these subaltern subjects, who are often invisible or actively excluded from Japan's aesthetic canons. 1 By referencing such postwar extremism, Moriyama's performance channeled the spirits of those whose lives were lost due to the questionable public health policies of many governments during the ongoing pandemic in 2021. The richness of Moriyama's dance gains additional depth when contextualized within the framework of the pandemic-influenced Olympics. The 2021 event, necessitated by global circumstances, was purposefully crafted for televisual broadcast...

Amidst the claims of incapability of the terms like varṇa and jāti to encapsulate our modern day understanding of caste, 1 this paper interrogates the category of jāti in an early historic text. The Jātakas as popular narrative texts marred in Buddhist normative structures provides us the possibility to move beyond Dharmaśāstric understanding of jāti as a category to see its working in the larger early historic society. In her exploration of the term jāti in the Vedic corpus, Uma Chakravarti concludes that the word jāti in the sense of 'caste' as we understand the word today…does not exist in the Vedic literature. On the contrary it appears to connote 'kinsmen', 'species' and 'family/lineage' etc. 2 In my exploration of the term jāti in the Jātakas, I found that the term continues to be used as birth, kind, species, etc., as it was used in later Vedic literature as shown by Chakravarti, but it also acquires a new meaning which explicitly suggests possibilities of its closeness to caste with its features of hierarchy, status, endogamy, and ideas of purity and pollution. In the Jātakas jāti appears with the meaning of birth. In fact the term Jātaka is derived from the same word conveying the meaning of birth as discussed earlier. We frequently get

Hoy comienza una nueva serie de conferencias de nuestra Asociación Zhen Jue. Esta vez presentaremos 'El Verdadero Significado de los Ágamas en los Tres Vehículos; un análisis de los fundamentos más antiguos del Yogacara'.
El material del que partimos es el libro «El Verdadero Significado de los Ágamas» escrito por el Maestro Pingshi Xiao. La razón por la que el Maestro escribió este libro es que antes de 2006, ciertos círculos budistas, y el entorno académico en general, consideraban que los Ágamas eran textos del Hinayana, orientados únicamente a los dos vehículos sravaka y pratyekabuddha. Sostenían que la enseñanza se centraba únicamente en elcamino de la liberación, sin hacer referencia a la naturaleza de Buda y este enfrentamiento dio lugar a una gran controversia en torno a la enseñanza sobre el Tathagatagarbha defendida por Maestro Pingshi. Por ello, el Maestro recurrió a los Ágamas para destacar los aspectos que fundamentan la enseñanza del Gran Vehículo. Pero, si mencionamos los Sutras del Gran Vehículo, algunas personas alegan que fueron compilados tardíamente y que por ello no son dignos de confianza. Esta es la razón por la que el Maestro Pingshi, en 'El Verdadero Significado de los Ágamas ', se basó exclusivamente en la evidencia textual de los cuatro Ágamas, revelando las enseñanzas del Gran Vehículo implícitas en ellos, para demostrar que el propio Buda había enseñado el Dharma del Gran Vehículo. Esto invalida los argumentos de los círculos budistas y académicos que utilizaban los Ágamas como prueba de que «el Gran Vehículo no es la palabra de Buda».