Administrative Courts

Prawo do sądu a orzekanie przez asesora sądowego 1. Wprowadzenie asesura sądowa powróciła do sądów powszechnych w 2015 r. na mocy nowelizacji 1 ustawy Prawo o ustroju sądów powszechnych 2 . z danych dostępnych na stronie Kancelarii Prezydenta rzeczypospolitej Polskiej wynika, że w latach 2019-2024 na stanowisko asesora sądowego w sądach rejonowych powołanych zostało 939 osób 3 . zgodnie z art. 2 § 1a u.s.p. i art. 106i § 8 u.s.p. asesor sądowy pełni obowiązki sędziego, czyli sprawuje wymiar sprawiedliwości, przez okres 4 lat od dnia objęcia stanowiska. 1 ustawa z dnia 10 lipca 2015 r. o zmianie ustawy -Prawo o ustroju sądów powszechnych oraz niektórych innych ustaw (dz.u. z 2015 r. poz. 1224). 2 ustawa z dnia 27 lipca 2001 r. Prawo o ustroju sądów powszechnych (t.j. dz. u.

wprawdzie zasada ogólna ochrony uzasadnionych oczekiwań ma swoje źródła w niemieckiej zasadzie Vertrauensschutz, ale też odzwierciedla znaną w common law "doktrynę estoppel"-tenże, Commission v Koninklijke Friesland Campina NV-a clear picture of locus standi and legitimate expectations, "European State Aid Law Quarterly" 2010, Nr 2, s. 399. Trzeba jednak zauważyć, że w prawie niemieckim zasada Vertrauensschutz również kształtowała się pod wpływem zasady dobrej wiary (niem. der Grundsatz von Treu und Glauben), podobnie zresztą jak estoppel, zob. M. Kamiński, Zasada ochrony zaufania jednostki do obowiązywania i kontynuacji (ciągłości) treściowej norm ustawowych a hipertrofia zmian normatywnych w prawie administracyjnym, [w:]

Rozdział stanowi wynik udziału w  zespole badawczym powołanym do realizowania  projektu badawczego nt Rola i granice trzeciej władzy w Unii Europejskiej - od teorii do praktyki pod kierunkiem prof. dr hab. T.G. Grosse, Uniwersytet Warszawski w 2023r.
Porusza problematykę europeizacji sądów narodowych w czasie kryzysu. Poszczególne jego części poświęcone są kolejno: zdefiniowaniu roli sądów narodowych w krajowym i unijnym porządku prawnym, charakterystyce pojęcia proces europeizacji sądów narodowych oraz jego cechom szczególnych w czasie kryzysu, podstawie prawnej europeizacji sądów narodowych w czasie kryzysu, mechanizmom europeizacji sądów narodowych. Szczegółowe rozważania poświęcone zostały też europeizacji sfery instytucjonalnej sądów narodowych w czasie kryzysu, w tym zdefiniowanego na nowo przez trybunały europejskie pojęcia niezawisłości sędziowskiej, sposobie postrzegania poszczególnych atrybutów tej niezawisłości w judykatach europejskich, ich charakterowi,, wykreowanej" przez trybunały koncepcjom niezawisłości sędziowskiej. Badania kończy rozważenie konsekwencji europeizacji sądów narodowych w czasie kryzysu i ingerencji instytucji ponadarodowych w autonomiczna sferę państw.

Resumo Quais são os critérios de validade relevantes nos julgamentos de um planejamento tributário no Novo CARF? A pesquisa coletou Acórdãos proferidos entre dezembro de 2015 a dezembro de 2017, envolvendo reestruturação societária, utilizando o método "normative systems" e regressões lineares, verificaram-se a significância de critérios de validade. Os resultados reiteram a importância do proposito negocial e da ausência de simulação, mas destacam características procedimentais que influenciam no resultado de um julgamento. Quem fez o voto vencedor condutor do Acórdão, se houve o voto de qualidade e o valor do crédito tributário, influenciam na validação ou invalidação do planejamento tributário. Palavras-chave: Planejamento tributário. Critérios de validade. Operações societárias; CARF.

proceedings." The problems of different approaches in the legislation of Azerbaijan, Georgia and Armenia in the development of administrative justice are studied. In the final part of the article, the author draws conclusions about the uneven development of administrative justice in the Transcaucasian states. On the greatest development of administrative justice in Armenia, since in this country there is a separate branch of the judicial systemadministrative courts. The author draws attention to the fact that in all three states Administrative Procedure Codes have been adopted and put into effect, which completely determine the order of administrative proceedings in Azerbaijan, Georgia and Armenia.

In the scientific article the reader is invited to familiarize himself with the history of the development of the judicial system in the Republic of Belarus for the period from 1923 to the present, the transformation of the judicial system of Belarus, as well as the historical development of administrative justice in the USSR and Belarus. The article describes various models of administrative justice that have evolved from the historical point of view: the first-administrative, the second-quasi-judicial, the third-the administrative and judicial, the fourth-the general. The statistical information of the Supreme Court of the Republic of Belarus on the number of administrative complaints of citizens to actions (inaction) of officials of public authorities for 2014-2017, including information on the number of satisfied complaints for the specified period are given. Legal possibilities of formation of specialized administrative courts in the Republic of Belarus on the basis of the Constitution of Belarus and the provisions of the Code of Belarus "On the Judicial System and Status of Judges" are explored. The analysis of the development of the judicial system of the Republic of Belarus, the systematization of knowledge on the topic under study on the basis of normative legal acts of the Republic of Belarus and educational literature is carried out. The problems of a different approach in the legislation of Belarus on the settlement of administrative disputes, namely in the Code of Civil Procedure and Economic Procedural Codes of Belarus, are being studied. In the concluding part of the article the author makes a reference to the need for a legal basis for the formation of specialized administrative courts in Belarus: the drafting and approval by the Parliament of Belarus of laws on the formation of administrative courts and administrative proceedings.

Although insufficiently, the first step is made towards fullfillment of the reform requirements in the area of admisitrative procedure on the way to the European integration and in accordance with the changed role of administration and the need for improvement of cooperation between the administration and citizens, or legal entities. In Bosnia and Herzegovina there is still no general legal regulation of administrative contracts, but administrative contracts are subjects to specific laws and as such already exist in the legal system. After some introductory remarks, the paper deals with the concept and characteristics of administrative contracts, and also presents legal regulation of administrative contracts highlighting their specificities and differences in relation to private law contracts. The importance of general legal norm governing administrative contracts is especially emphasized, as well as their importance for reform processes in our country. Accordingly, the importance of introducing a complaint as a legal remedy that a client can use if the public authority fails to meet contractual obligations is pointed out, but also the possibility of judicial protection in case of legal dispute.

Artykuł zawiera refleksje na temat koncepcji dobrej administracji, która jest uznawana za niekwestionowany standard międzynarodowy na bazie Rady Europy, który odgrywa coraz większą rolę w odniesieniu do funkcjonowania współczesnej służby publicznej nadając mu charakter nawet „prawa człowieka trzeciej generacji”. Autor zwraca uwagę, że zróżnicowana kultura prawna i kultura polityczna determinują różne rozwiązania instytucjonalne i kompetencyjne w ramach realizacji jednej zasady „dobrej administracji”. W tym celu Rada Europy nie tylko formułuje standardy dotyczące dobrej administracji, ale pomaga również państwom członkowskim w ich praktycznej implementacji. Szczególna rolę w regionie europejskim w kreowaniu i upowszechnianiu standardu dobrej administracji odgrywa poza Radą Europy także Unia Europejska, co jak podkreśla Autor za literaturą wspomaga zjawisko heterogenizacji (partykularyzacji) prawa, co współcześnie idzie w parze z jego postępującą multicentrycznością, która w warunkach...

Słowa kluczowe: podatek od wartości dodanej, procedura podatkowa, prawo do skutecznego środka zaskarżenia, prawo do sądu, autonomia proceduralna
Artykuł dotyczy problematyki ochrony proceduralnej, jaka powinna mieć miejsce w odniesieniu to praw podmiotowych jednostki wywodzonych z prawa Unii Europejskiej, a ściślej tych praw, które dotyczą podatku od wartości dodanej. Autorka wskazuje na konieczność stosowania przez organy podatkowe i sądy administracyjne adekwatnych procedur podatkowych do zaistniałych sporów. Źródło wspomnianej adekwatności zaś wywodzi z prawa do skutecznego środka zaskarżenia.

Democracy is the oldest value of the civilized world. Without it, there is no question of the rule of law, protection of human rights or non-discrimination. Democracy is realized through the law, and the violation of the rule of law always damages it and triggers an accountability mechanism aimed at assessing the actions of governing bodies directly in relation to the democratic standard (accountability). This standard is expressed and measured by the degree of trust which ruling authorities in a democratic society must inspire in subjects of the law. The stronger the trust is, the democratic standards are higher, and the legal protection becomes stronger. The constitutional democratic standard in the EU is thus a derivative of the standard of effective legal protection provided by independent courts. The independence of the judiciary is a key element of democratic accountability as it builds public confidence in the courts as authorities and trust strengthens democratic accountabil...

Die "Macht" des Verwaltungsgerichts im Bereich der öffentlichen Verwaltung-eine rechtsvergleichende Analyse Eine Sachentscheidung, mit der ein Verwaltungsgericht eine administrative Angelegenheit erledigt, bedeutet nicht, dass die Verwaltungshoheit in den Händen des Verwaltungsgerichts liegt. Vielmehr übt das Gericht nur öffentliche Gewalt im Bereich der öffentlichen Verwaltung aus. Ein System, in dem das Verwaltungsgericht den Bescheid einer Verwaltungsbehörde abändern oder feststellen kann, dass eine verwaltungsrechtliche Verpfl ichtung oder Berechtigung besteht, kann den wirksamen Rechtsschutz am besten gewährleisten.

Przyjęcie kontynentalnego (scentralizowanego) modelu kontroli konstytucyjności prawa na gruncie polskiej ustawy zasadniczej przyczyniło się do utworzenia specjalnego organu konstytucyjnego – Trybunału Konstytucyjnego – powołanego w celu rozpatrywania rozmaitych kwestii konstytucyjnych. Analiza obowiązujących regulacji prawnych oraz rozwiązań ustrojowych skłania jednak do postawienia pytania o to, jaką rolę odgrywają w tym zakresie sądy administracyjne, których podstawowym celem jest kontrola działalności administracji publicznej pod względem zgodności z prawem. Tak szeroko zakreślone kryterium kontroli (legalność), odnoszone w szczególności do jednego z podstawowych przejawów działalności organów administracji publicznej, jakim są powszechnie obowiązujące na obszarze działania organów, które je ustanowiły, akty prawa miejscowego, może bowiem sprawiać trudności w precyzyjnym określeniu jej wzorców. Wątpliwości w tym zakresie pozostawiają również niejednoznaczne i nie w pełni spójne p...

The result of expanding jurisdiction of the European Union (hereinafter: EU) is not only the increase in number of sectors in which special administrative procedures are enforced, but also the increase in number of corresponding bodies and agencies. The current state is characterised by lack of coordination and uniformity and absence of codified procedural rules which makes it difficult for the EU citizens to easily and completely understand their administrative rights and contributes to deterioration of their legal protection. This is not in accordance with the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union (hereinafter: Charter), which guarantees its citizens the right to good administration (Article 41). The authors deem that the standardization of the sectoral administrative rules would lead to simplification and rationalisation of the administrative procedures. European Administrative Law is developed through the practice of the Court of Justice of the EU (hereinafter: CJEU) that has formulated a series of general administrative principles to be followed in order for administrative procedures to maintain their legitimacy. Nevertheless, the legislator is considered to be the one who determines clear procedural rules, thus contributing to legal safety and predictability. Discussing the need for codification of the Law on Administrative Procedure of the European Union (hereinafter: EU APA) has thus become even more relevant. However, the question that constantly arises is whether the regulation on common administrative procedure is necessary in the EU legislation and if so to what extent. The necessity to regulate the minimum of common procedural standards and principles of good

Accession of the Republic of Croatia to the EU has prompted numerous legal reforms and amendments. One of them was a major administrative court reform the main result of which was the new Administrative Disputes Act adopted in 2010 and coming into force 2012. One of the issues it regulates is the judicial control in general, and together with Foreigners Act from 2011 defines control of administrative acts and measures regarding unlawful residence of foreigners in Croatia, which is the subject of the analysis in this paper. The paper is divided in three main parts. Basic features of migrations and its consequences on European and domestic regulation are explained in the first part of the paper. Second part of the paper is focused on the procedural aspect of migrations, namely on the unlawful residence of foreigners from the perspective of the administrative courts. The final part of the paper draws certain conclusions based on the preceding analysis. The main focus of the paper is an analysis of the specificities of administrative courts' control, such as the shortness of deadlines, oral hearings as an exception, particularities of the engagement of the parties before the court, etc. Paper elaborates in detail the normative arrangement of unlawful residence in Croatia and differences between Foreigners Act and Administrative Disputes Act through analysis of the relevant domestic and European regulative framework and case law. With this, the paper hopes to contribute in solving at least some of the numerous legal problems associated with the current migrant and refugee crisis from the perspective of the European and Croatian administrative law.

Accession of the Republic of Croatia to the EU has prompted numerous legal reforms and amendments. One of them was a major administrative court reform the main result of which was the new Administrative Disputes Act adopted in 2010 and coming into force 2012. One of the issues it regulates is the judicial control in general, and together with Foreigners Act from 2011 defines control of administrative acts and measures regarding unlawful residence of foreigners in Croatia, which is the subject of the analysis in this paper. The paper is divided in three main parts. Basic features of migrations and its consequences on European and domestic regulation are explained in the first part of the paper. Second part of the paper is focused on the procedural aspect of migrations, namely on the unlawful residence of foreigners from the perspective of the administrative courts. The final part of the paper draws certain conclusions based on the preceding analysis. The main focus of the paper is an analysis of the specificities of administrative courts' control, such as the shortness of deadlines, oral hearings as an exception, particularities of the engagement of the parties before the court, etc. Paper elaborates in detail the normative arrangement of unlawful residence in Croatia and differences between Foreigners Act and Administrative Disputes Act through analysis of the relevant domestic and European regulative framework and case law. With this, the paper hopes to contribute in solving at least some of the numerous legal problems associated with the current migrant and refugee crisis from the perspective of the European and Croatian administrative law.

The article presents the results of empirical research devoted to the motivation for serving as a lay judge of the Supreme Court of the Republic of Poland. The social factor was introduced into the Polish legal system under the Act of December 8th, 2017 on the Supreme Court. Public discourse has pointed to the legislature’s intent to provide broader, social legitimacy to the Supreme Court. The participation of the social factor is envisaged in the following proceedings: disciplinary and extraordinary appeal. The empirical study consisted in the
Supreme Court lay judges filling a survey, which included a series of questions – mainly closed ones – concerning their motivation for holding the office, their management style, the way they work in a group, the role of rewards and reinforcements, but also their opinions on their functioning in the Supreme Court, their sense of satisfaction with their work, and their possible proposals for changes in the existing regulations. The article consists of a theoretical part,
devoted to the legal regulations concerning the institution of lay judges of the Supreme Court, a discussion of the methodology of the study, its results and final conclusions. The authors only
present and discuss the obtained results, without evaluating the legitimacy of introducing the
social factor into the judicial process at the level of the Court of Cassation from the perspective of the theory and philosophy of law or the science of management and quality. The aim of
the study was to examine the social attitudes of people who decided to run for the position of a lay judge of the Supreme Court and were sworn in after successfully passing the induction procedure. The analysis is interdisciplinary. The study was prepared with the participation of researchers representing a number of disciplines in the field of social sciences: economics, law, management and quality sciences and psychology.

Accession of the Republic of Croatia to the EU has prompted numerous legal reforms and amendments. One of them was a major administrative court reform the main result of which was the new Administrative Disputes Act adopted in 2010 and coming into force 2012. One of the issues it regulates is the judicial control in general, and together with Foreigners Act from 2011 defines control of administrative acts and measures regarding unlawful residence of foreigners in Croatia, which is the subject of the analysis in this paper. The paper is divided in three main parts. Basic features of migrations and its consequences on European and domestic regulation are explained in the first part of the paper. Second part of the paper is focused on the procedural aspect of migrations, namely on the unlawful residence of foreigners from the perspective of the administrative courts. The final part of the paper draws certain conclusions based on the preceding analysis. The main focus of the paper is an analysis of the specificities of administrative courts' control, such as the shortness of deadlines, oral hearings as an exception, particularities of the engagement of the parties before the court, etc. Paper elaborates in detail the normative arrangement of unlawful residence in Croatia and differences between Foreigners Act and Administrative Disputes Act through analysis of the relevant domestic and European regulative framework and case law. With this, the paper hopes to contribute in solving at least some of the numerous legal problems associated with the current migrant and refugee crisis from the perspective of the European and Croatian administrative law.

The institution of requisitioning, analysed in this article, belongs to the area of research related to the obligation to provide in-kind contributions by the population in the area of military operations. It is primarily an area of interest for the study of international public law and administrative law. The institution of war requisitioning, understood as a way of obtaining items important for the supply of troops, has a centuries-long tradition and is connected with warfare carried out by individual nations and States over the centuries. The aim of the article is to analyse normative issues related to the use of this institution by the Polish army during the Polish-Bolshevik War of 1920, in the light of the legislation regulating this matter at that time, as well the practice and decisions of Polish courts in this area after the end of warfare.

Институт  реквизиции,  который  является  предметом  настоящего  анализа,  относится  к  вопро-сам, связанным с обязанностью несения материальных благ населением, находящимся в зоне военных действий, является сферой интересов науки в рамках международного публичного права и администра-тивного права. Институт военной реквизиции, понимаемый как способ приобретения важных с его точ-ки  зрения  объектов  для  нужд  снабжения  армий,  имеет  многовековую  традицию  и  остается  связанным  с военными операциями, проводимыми на протяжении веков различными народами и государствами. Целью  настоящей  статьи  является  анализ  нормативных  вопросов,  связанных  с  использованием  этого  института польской армией во время польско-большевистской войны 1920 года, в свете законодатель-ства, регулирующего этот вопрос в то время, и судебной практики польских судов в этой области после окончания военных действий.

The European standards set out the minimum guarantees designed to
protect the right to a fair trial. In a multi-centric legal system, administrative
courts are bound by European and international regulations which – together
with domestic law – provide a broad catalogue of elements of proper protection.
The standards are also meant to prevent or solve conflicts of laws. Although the
acquis conventionnel takes precedence over the acquis de l’Union and domestic
law, all the dimensions – European and domestic ones – rely on a set of common
values and principles that, in turn, influence the process of applying laws and
issuing decisions. This way equivalent protection is achieved in the area of fundamental rights throughout Europe. The paper is an attempt to recapitulate the
catalogue of fair trial standards (both of substantive and procedural nature), to
list their sources (mainly from the soft law category) as well as to provide a paradigm of the decision-making process involving the acquis conventionnel and
domestic regulations. The analysis of their successive stages may be useful for
administrative practice and has been illustrated with administrative courts case
law, since the violations of rights result rather from legal practice than legislation and a crucial duty of administrative courts is to protect individuals’ rights in
disputes with public administration.

The result of expanding jurisdiction of the European Union (hereinafter: EU) is not only the increase in number of sectors in which special administrative procedures are enforced, but also the increase in number of corresponding bodies and agencies. The current state is characterised by lack of coordination and uniformity and absence of codified procedural rules which makes it difficult for the EU citizens to easily and completely understand their administrative rights and contributes to deterioration of their legal protection. This is not in accordance with the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union (hereinafter: Charter), which guarantees its citizens the right to good administration (Article 41). The authors deem that the standardization of the sectoral administrative rules would lead to simplification and rationalisation of the administrative procedures. European Administrative Law is developed through the practice of the Court of Justice of the EU (hereinafter: CJEU) that has formulated a series of general administrative principles to be followed in order for administrative procedures to maintain their legitimacy. Nevertheless, the legislator is considered to be the one who determines clear procedural rules, thus contributing to legal safety and predictability. Discussing the need for codification of the Law on Administrative Procedure of the European Union (hereinafter: EU APA) has thus become even more relevant. However, the question that constantly arises is whether the regulation on common administrative procedure is necessary in the EU legislation and if so to what extent. The necessity to regulate the minimum of common procedural standards and principles of good

Since 2010 extraordinary legal remedy has been used in the Croatian system of administrative adjudication known as the request for extraordinary review of legality of the final verdicts. Through the grammatical, logical and teleological methods of interpretation, the paper analyzes the provisions of the Administrative Disputes Act from 2010 regulating this remedy. Changes of the norms of the remedy made in accordance with the amendments of the Administrative Dispute Act from 2012 and 2014 are briefly mentioned. The specificities of submitting legal remedy are especially emphasized in terms of its reasons, applicants, deadlines and contents of the request, grounds for review and the authorities of the Supreme Court of the Republic of Croatia in deciding on the submitted applications. Furthermore, there are indications of certain imprecision and lack of legal regulation. Statistical data of the State Attorney Office of the Republic of Croatia and the court practice of the Supreme Court of the Republic of Croatia in the period from 2012 to 2017 in reference with the submitted requests which are analyzed based on casuistic methods. A special chapter is devoted to a brief review of the normative regulation of legal remedy in Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Montenegro, using a comparative method and in conclusion final considerations of the scientific issues are presented.

Systematic and effective nature protection and conservation are secured by constitutional provisions and are the duty of all natural and legal persons, while nature and all its parts are of interest to the Republic of Croatia and as such are subject to special protection. Protected areas are among the most important natural resources of the Republic of Croatia. Therefore, we think it is important to analyze from an administrative-law viewpoint the special administrative procedure for resolving administrative cases and adopting administrative laws related to protected areas and the use of natural resources. The paper will present and analyze the legal framework for managing protected areas in accordance with the Nature Protection Act. Competent authorities will be identified along with procedures for special administrative action pertaining to the use of natural resources and for issuing decisions regulating conditions of nature protection. The main central government authority responsible for issuing said decisions is the Ministry of Environmental Protection and Energy. By comparing two relevant laws, the General Administrative Procedure Act (lex generalis) and the Nature Protection Act (lex specialis) with respect to administrative proceedings, we will try to determine if there are, and to what extent, any discrepancies between the two laws. Once the central government authority responsible for nature protection issues a decision, further legal protection may be achieved only through initiating an administrative dispute before a competent administrative court. With this in mind, we will analyze the administrative court practices using the case method and in relation to disputes assessing the legality of decisions issued in procedures of protected areas management. Analysis of case-law from the chosen period will allow direct insight into the decision-making process of administrative courts and determine mistakes that happened during procedures before the competent Ministry. Special emphasis will be given to the role of first-instance administrative courts in the Republic of Croatia in providing court protection in the aforementioned special administrative area.