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Computer Science
Human-Computer Interaction

The mechanics of trust: A framework for research and design

Profile image of Jens RiegelsbergerJens Riegelsberger

2005, International Journal of Human-computer Studies / International Journal of Man-machine Studies

https://doi.org/10.1016/J.IJHCS.2005.01.001
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27 pages

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Abstract

With an increasing number of technologies supporting transactions over distance and replacing traditional forms of interaction, designing for trust has become a core concern for researchers in both HCI and CMC. While much research focuses on increasing trust in mediated interactions, this paper takes a systemic view to identify the factors that support trustworthy behavior. In a second step, we analyze how the presence of these factors can be signaled to allow the formation of well-placed trust. For our analysis we draw on relevant research from sociology, economics, and psychology, as well as empirical findings in HCI and CMC research.

Figures (10)
Figure 1: The basic interaction between trustor and trustee. Trust is only required in situations that are characterized by risk and uncertainty. Only if something is at stake, and only if the outcome of a situation is uncertain, do we need to trust. Uncertainty, and thus the need for trust, stems from our lack of detailed knowledge about the other actor’s abilities and motivation (Deutsch, 1958). If we had accurate insight into their reasoning, trust would not be an issue (Giddens, 1990). We develop our framework from the sequential interaction between two actors (not always people): trustor (the trusting actor) and ¢rustee (the trusted actor). Figure | shows a model of a prototypical trust-requiring situation.
Figure 1: The basic interaction between trustor and trustee. Trust is only required in situations that are characterized by risk and uncertainty. Only if something is at stake, and only if the outcome of a situation is uncertain, do we need to trust. Uncertainty, and thus the need for trust, stems from our lack of detailed knowledge about the other actor’s abilities and motivation (Deutsch, 1958). If we had accurate insight into their reasoning, trust would not be an issue (Giddens, 1990). We develop our framework from the sequential interaction between two actors (not always people): trustor (the trusting actor) and ¢rustee (the trusted actor). Figure | shows a model of a prototypical trust-requiring situation.
Figure 2: Ability and Motivation as foundation of trustworthiness. Trustworthiness can be signaled via symbols and symptoms. Symptoms are “information manna” (Bacharach et al., 1997) and are not specifically created to signal trust-warranting properties; rather, they are given off as a by-product of trustworthy actions. For example, the existence of a large number of customer reviews for a product sold on an e-commerce site is seen as a symptom of a large customer base. Symptoms come at no cost to trustworthy actors, but need to be mimicked at a cost untrustworthy ones. Trus untrustworthiness (e.g. nervousness, scruffy looks, a poorly kept shop or a ineptly designed web interface). Interpersonal cues (e.g. eye-gaze) are often considered to states and thus thought to give insight into people’s symptomatic of emotiona trustworthiness (Goffman, abilities to read interpersonal cues (Horn, Olson & Karasik, 2002). These cues can can also be based on the absence of symptoms 959). However, it has been shown that we overestimate o bY of be cy ur be used strategically in face-to-face situations, and even more so in mediated communication that allows & Nass, 1996). he sender more control over the cues he gives off (e.g. in pre- recorded video or in an avatar-representation; Garau et al., 2003). Nonetheless, we seem to be predisposed to take them into account in our trust formation (Fogg, 2003a; Reeves
Figure 2: Ability and Motivation as foundation of trustworthiness. Trustworthiness can be signaled via symbols and symptoms. Symptoms are “information manna” (Bacharach et al., 1997) and are not specifically created to signal trust-warranting properties; rather, they are given off as a by-product of trustworthy actions. For example, the existence of a large number of customer reviews for a product sold on an e-commerce site is seen as a symptom of a large customer base. Symptoms come at no cost to trustworthy actors, but need to be mimicked at a cost untrustworthy ones. Trus untrustworthiness (e.g. nervousness, scruffy looks, a poorly kept shop or a ineptly designed web interface). Interpersonal cues (e.g. eye-gaze) are often considered to states and thus thought to give insight into people’s symptomatic of emotiona trustworthiness (Goffman, abilities to read interpersonal cues (Horn, Olson & Karasik, 2002). These cues can can also be based on the absence of symptoms 959). However, it has been shown that we overestimate o bY of be cy ur be used strategically in face-to-face situations, and even more so in mediated communication that allows & Nass, 1996). he sender more control over the cues he gives off (e.g. in pre- recorded video or in an avatar-representation; Garau et al., 2003). Nonetheless, we seem to be predisposed to take them into account in our trust formation (Fogg, 2003a; Reeves
Figure 3: Contextual trust-warranting properties give the trustee incentives for fulfillment. They can alse signal the presence of intrinsic trust-warranting properties (see Figure 4).
Figure 3: Contextual trust-warranting properties give the trustee incentives for fulfillment. They can alse signal the presence of intrinsic trust-warranting properties (see Figure 4).
Figure 4: Intrinsic trust-warranting properties impact trustee’s fulfillment independent from contextual incentives. Figure 2), they do not fully explain how actors behave empirically (Riegelsberger et al. 2003b; Fukuyama, 1999). Cooperation based on contextual properties only is bound tc break down in their absence. However, actors also do fulfill in such situations based or intrinsic properties such as benevol ence or ethics. Intrinsic trust-warranting properties such as benevolence are widely believed to manifes themselves in interpersonal cues t with others (Bacharach et al., hat can be easily and instantly read when interacting 1997; Goffman, 1959). Face-to-face interaction 1: considered the broadest channel for the exchange of such cues. Examples of interpersona cues include facial expression and body language (Bacharach et al., 1997). Numerou: studies, however, found that individuals over-estimate their abilities to read such cue: (O'Doherty, Kringelback, Rolls, Hornak, & Andrews, 2001). For human actors severa researchers have compiled detailed overviews on character traits and personality factor: that are perceived as indicators of intrinsic trustworthiness (McKnight et al., 2000) Below we introduce the core dimensions and extend, where necessary, the discussion tc organisational and technological ac tors (see Figure 4).
Figure 4: Intrinsic trust-warranting properties impact trustee’s fulfillment independent from contextual incentives. Figure 2), they do not fully explain how actors behave empirically (Riegelsberger et al. 2003b; Fukuyama, 1999). Cooperation based on contextual properties only is bound tc break down in their absence. However, actors also do fulfill in such situations based or intrinsic properties such as benevol ence or ethics. Intrinsic trust-warranting properties such as benevolence are widely believed to manifes themselves in interpersonal cues t with others (Bacharach et al., hat can be easily and instantly read when interacting 1997; Goffman, 1959). Face-to-face interaction 1: considered the broadest channel for the exchange of such cues. Examples of interpersona cues include facial expression and body language (Bacharach et al., 1997). Numerou: studies, however, found that individuals over-estimate their abilities to read such cue: (O'Doherty, Kringelback, Rolls, Hornak, & Andrews, 2001). For human actors severa researchers have compiled detailed overviews on character traits and personality factor: that are perceived as indicators of intrinsic trustworthiness (McKnight et al., 2000) Below we introduce the core dimensions and extend, where necessary, the discussion tc organisational and technological ac tors (see Figure 4).
Table 1: Different types of trust linked to stages in a relationship. It is a common misunderstanding (Rousseau et al., 1998) that the ideal form of trust is that of identification-based or relational trust. Most exchanges are conducted on the level of calculus- or knowledge-based trust. Aiming for relational levels of trust in most exchanges would be too costly, and would tie the trust to an individual rather than to a role. It would be very time-consuming to aim for close relationships with sales assistants, bank clerks, or waiters. Similarly, it might be unnecessary or even harmful to aim for a close parasocial relationship (Horton & Wohl, 1956) between customers and e.g. virtual shopping agents on an e-commerce site (Fogg, 2003a). Many researchers differentiate cognitive and affective trust (Corritore, Kracher, & Wiedenbeck. 2001: Lewis et al.. 1985: McAllister. 1995: Rocco. Finholt. Hofer. &
Table 1: Different types of trust linked to stages in a relationship. It is a common misunderstanding (Rousseau et al., 1998) that the ideal form of trust is that of identification-based or relational trust. Most exchanges are conducted on the level of calculus- or knowledge-based trust. Aiming for relational levels of trust in most exchanges would be too costly, and would tie the trust to an individual rather than to a role. It would be very time-consuming to aim for close relationships with sales assistants, bank clerks, or waiters. Similarly, it might be unnecessary or even harmful to aim for a close parasocial relationship (Horton & Wohl, 1956) between customers and e.g. virtual shopping agents on an e-commerce site (Fogg, 2003a). Many researchers differentiate cognitive and affective trust (Corritore, Kracher, & Wiedenbeck. 2001: Lewis et al.. 1985: McAllister. 1995: Rocco. Finholt. Hofer. &
3.1 Research In this section, we discuss how a systemic view of the mechanics underlying trust and trustworthy action (see Figure 5) reshapes the research agenda, and how it can inform the design of studies and generate hypotheses. We then apply the framework to three scenarios of technically mediated interactions to show how it can structure practitioners’ approaches to designs that support trust and trustworthy action.
3.1 Research In this section, we discuss how a systemic view of the mechanics underlying trust and trustworthy action (see Figure 5) reshapes the research agenda, and how it can inform the design of studies and generate hypotheses. We then apply the framework to three scenarios of technically mediated interactions to show how it can structure practitioners’ approaches to designs that support trust and trustworthy action.
Figure 6: The framework applied to trust in consumer e-commerce. enforce rules of conduct. Vendor’s intrinsic properties, as said above, can be inferred by site elements that indicate contextual incentives for trustworthy action. Competence or ability to fulfill can be extrapolated from professionalism in site design. Additional elements that are specifically referring to intrinsic properties include mission statements, privacy policies, upfront disclosure of terms & conditions and additional costs (e.g. shipping) to indicate a vendors’ integrity; or at least to show that one is willing to set out the norms against one is willing to be judged later. Strong benevolence as it is identified in long-standing relationships between humans does not apply to e-commerce. However, with a continued business relationship a form of benevolence between vendor and customer can grow. This can take the form of strong brand identification on the side of the customer and loyalty schemes, more lenient payment conditions, or access to internal information on the side of the vendor. Policies such as ‘returns with no questions asked’ increase the vendor’s vulnerability and can indicate that they want a benevolent relationship, in which neither partner is interested in reaping short-term benefits. As said before, these efforts can also backfire: Aiming to appear benevolent without sufficient actions to found these claims can be perceived as manipulative and thus decrease trust (Riegelsberger et al., 2002). For the extensively researched area of trust in e-commerce the framework showed how and why identified signifiers of trust do work — but also how their impact can change depending on situational factors, and thus where their limitations are. Figure 6 summarizes our discussion.
Figure 6: The framework applied to trust in consumer e-commerce. enforce rules of conduct. Vendor’s intrinsic properties, as said above, can be inferred by site elements that indicate contextual incentives for trustworthy action. Competence or ability to fulfill can be extrapolated from professionalism in site design. Additional elements that are specifically referring to intrinsic properties include mission statements, privacy policies, upfront disclosure of terms & conditions and additional costs (e.g. shipping) to indicate a vendors’ integrity; or at least to show that one is willing to set out the norms against one is willing to be judged later. Strong benevolence as it is identified in long-standing relationships between humans does not apply to e-commerce. However, with a continued business relationship a form of benevolence between vendor and customer can grow. This can take the form of strong brand identification on the side of the customer and loyalty schemes, more lenient payment conditions, or access to internal information on the side of the vendor. Policies such as ‘returns with no questions asked’ increase the vendor’s vulnerability and can indicate that they want a benevolent relationship, in which neither partner is interested in reaping short-term benefits. As said before, these efforts can also backfire: Aiming to appear benevolent without sufficient actions to found these claims can be perceived as manipulative and thus decrease trust (Riegelsberger et al., 2002). For the extensively researched area of trust in e-commerce the framework showed how and why identified signifiers of trust do work — but also how their impact can change depending on situational factors, and thus where their limitations are. Figure 6 summarizes our discussion.
Figure 8: The framework applied to ambient technologies. [he vision of the ambient technologies relies on the constant exchange of personal nformation among multiple devices, individuals and organisations. The high number of nicro-trust decisions required in such a scenario calls for automated trust management. [rust decisions based on contextual properties can be delegated to ambient systems, e.g. n the form of reputation tracking, certification and organisational affiliation (see Figure 3). These contextual properties allow intelligent agents to check appropriate levels of ncentivation for fulfillment and give signals for intrinsic properties. However, human rust is also vested in intrinsic properties such as integrity or benevolence that we can quickly assess in the form of interpersonal cues. Ambient technologies cannot replace his subjective trust-assessment, but should help support us in performing it.
Figure 8: The framework applied to ambient technologies. [he vision of the ambient technologies relies on the constant exchange of personal nformation among multiple devices, individuals and organisations. The high number of nicro-trust decisions required in such a scenario calls for automated trust management. [rust decisions based on contextual properties can be delegated to ambient systems, e.g. n the form of reputation tracking, certification and organisational affiliation (see Figure 3). These contextual properties allow intelligent agents to check appropriate levels of ncentivation for fulfillment and give signals for intrinsic properties. However, human rust is also vested in intrinsic properties such as integrity or benevolence that we can quickly assess in the form of interpersonal cues. Ambient technologies cannot replace his subjective trust-assessment, but should help support us in performing it.
Table 2: Design heuristics for trust-supporting systems. While this list will be helpful in ensuring the presence of the basic requirements for trust, it should not lead researchers and designers to assume that trust and trustworthy action can be ‘designed into a system’. We are convinced that a system also needs to give room for the evolution of groups and informal institutions. These can develop codes of conduct, signals for membership, and eventually can lead to the formation of intrinsic preferences and internalized norms. A well known example of such an approach are role
Table 2: Design heuristics for trust-supporting systems. While this list will be helpful in ensuring the presence of the basic requirements for trust, it should not lead researchers and designers to assume that trust and trustworthy action can be ‘designed into a system’. We are convinced that a system also needs to give room for the evolution of groups and informal institutions. These can develop codes of conduct, signals for membership, and eventually can lead to the formation of intrinsic preferences and internalized norms. A well known example of such an approach are role

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Ben Shneiderman

2000

Ancient social traditions were designed to elicit trust during uncertain encounters. Handshak-ing demonstrated the absence of weapons. Clinking of glasses evolved from pouring wine back and forth to prove it was not poisoned. Now, new social traditions are needed to enhance cooperative behaviors in electronic environments supporting e-commerce, e-services, and online communities.

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Manuscript: Trust in Mediated Interactions Oxford Handbook of Internet Psychology
Angela Sasse

With an increasing number of technologies supporting interaction at a distance, trust in mediated interactions has become a key interest in the field of human computer interaction (HCI). Research covers the role of trust in mediated interactions with other individuals (e.g. in virtual teams) and organisations (e.g. via e-commerce web sites). This chapter synthesises current research into a framework that introduces the key factors that affect trust and trustworthy behaviour. These are contextual properties (motivation based on temporal, social, and institutional embeddedness), and the actor's intrinsic properties (ability, and motivation based on internalized norms and benevolence). Knowledge of these underlying factors can help designers in structuring the design space and researchers in planning and generalising from studies on trust in mediated interactions.

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i2i trust in e-commerce
Gary Olson

Communications of The ACM, 2000

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2 Trustbuilders and Trustbusters The Role of Trust Cues in Interfaces to e-Commerce Applications
Jens Riegelsberger

2001

This paper investigates how interface design can help to overcome the proclaimed 'lack of trust' in e-commerce sites. Based on existing social science knowledge on trust, and our own exploratory study using Grounded Theory methods, we developed a model of consumer decision making in online shopping. Due to the separation in space and time when engaging in ecommerce, there is an increased need for trust, rather than the oft-proclaimed lack of trust. Based on this model we then review design guidelines through empirical tests. We focus on approaches that aim to increase trust by increasing the social presence of an interface. We identified cues in the user interface that help to build trust to some extent (trustbuilders), and some cues that have a great potential for destroying trust (trustbusters).

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Trust in Online Technology: Towards Practical Guidelines Based on Experimentally Verified Theory
Christian A Detweiler

Human-Computer Interaction. Ambient, …, 2009

A large amount of research attempts to define trust, yet relatively little research attempts to experimentally verify what makes trust needed in interactions with humans and technology. In this paper we identify the underlying elements of trust-requiring situations: (a) goals that involve dependence on another, (b) a perceived lack of control over the other, (c) uncertainty regarding the ability of the other, and (d) uncertainty regarding the benevolence of the other. Then, we propose a model of the interaction of these elements. We argue that this model can explain why certain situations require trust. To test the applicability of the proposed model to an instance of human-technology interaction, we constructed a website which required subjects to depend on an intelligent software agent to accomplish a task. A strong correlation was found between subjects' level of trust in the software and the ability they perceived the software as having. Strong negative correlations were found between perceived risk and perceived ability, and between perceived risk and trust.

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    Organizations are increasingly investing in technology-enhanced learning systems to improve their employees' skills. Serious games are one example; the competitive and fun nature of games is supposed to motivate employee participation. But any system that records employee data raises issues of privacy and trust. In this paper, we present a study on privacy and trust implications of serious games in an organizational context. We present findings from 32 interviews with potential end-users of a serious games platform called TARGET. A qualitative analysis of the interviews reveals that participants anticipate privacy risks for the data generated in game playing, and their decision to trust their fellow employees and managers depends on the presence of specific trust signals. Failure to minimize privacy risks and maximize trust will affect the acceptance of the system and the learning experience -thus undermining the primary purpose for which it was deployed. Game designers are advised to provide mechanisms for selective disclosure of data by players, and organizations should not use gaming data for appraisal or selection purposes, and clearly communicate this to employees.

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    Jens Riegelsberger

    2006

    The objective of this paper is to set the research agenda for a workshop focusing on novel approaches to supporting trust, collaboration, and compliance in social systems. Suggested approaches are: self-awareness, reparative and social recommender mechanisms.

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    Consumer acceptance of internet banking: the influence of internet trust
    Rita Faullant

    International Journal of Bank Marketing, 2008

    Purpose -This study seeks to investigate the role of internet trust as a specific form of technology trust in the context of internet banking. Furthermore, the integration of propensity to trust within the hierarchical structure of personality and its applicability to technological systems are investigated. Design/methodology/approach -The approach takes the form of an empirical study with 381 bank customers in Austria (adopters and non-adopters) and the use of a basic model of the adoption of internet banking with structural equation modelling (SEM). Findings -The results confirm the influence of internet trust on risk perception and consumer attitudes towards internet banking. Propensity to trust is a determinant not only for interpersonal relationships but also for trust in technological systems. Research limitations/implications -This is not a representative study. Future research is encouraged to systematically investigate further facets of the personality structure in trust and adoption research, as well as to test interaction effects of psychological determinants (from the study) and external stimuli (web site characteristics). Practical implications -Making the internet banking interface for the customer more attractive and easier to navigate is not enough to increase the adoption rate of internet banking. Trust-creating activities to increase internet trust and to diminish perceived risk must be continuously pursued. Propensity to trust is an important determinant in the fruitfulness of these actions. Originality/value -The paper presents the conceptualization of internet trust as a specific form of technology trust, and its pivotal role in the adoption process of internet banking, together with the extension of the propensity to trust concept to technological systems.

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    Virtually being there: Human aspects of shore-based ship assistance
    Margareta Lützhöft

    2010

    Shore-based ship assistance is a topic that increasingly is attracting attention from the maritime community. Subjects such as shore-based pilotage and VTS are often discussed and there is technological and political pressure towards more extensive forms of such assistance. Perhaps less often mentioned, but not less important, is the human side of these subjects. The present paper examines two of the central concerns for the people who actually work within today’s VTS centers, namely communication and trust. The study consisted of a literature review, study visits, observations and interviews. Communication and trust are found to be closely related, and one main finding is that adapting one’s means of communication to the context can be a very powerful (and necessary) tool for the creation of trust. Another important result is that the ability of the shore-based operator to see the situation from the viewpoint of the crew is crucial for the creation and maintenance of trust.

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    The effect of web communities on consumers' initial trust in B2C e‐commerce websites
    Malaika Brengman

    Management Research Review, 2012

    Purpose -The purpose of this paper is to test the effectiveness of the mere integration of social network applications to provide a signal concerning the "trustworthiness" of an unfamiliar e-vendor in order to enhance subsequent purchase intentions. Design/methodology/approach -To investigate the impact of web communities on consumers' initial trust beliefs (i.e. ability, benevolence and integrity), a 2 £ 3 between-subjects full factorial online experiment was carried out, using a fictitious web site for a gift gadgets selling company, manipulating it for inclusion or exclusion of a "social networking site", and for inclusion or exclusion of "a corporate blog (text only blog, photo and text blog, or no blog)". Data were obtained from 226 online shoppers. Findings -Although the authors could not reveal any effects of the integration of social network applications on "ability" beliefs, it was possible to demonstrate their capacity to "signal" "benevolence" and "integrity", which in turn have a significant impact on purchase intentions. Unfamiliar e-retailers may foster perceptions of "integrity" by utilizing text-blogs into their web sites, but they should avoid embedding facial photos of shop representatives in the blog. If e-retailers want to make use of "a corporate blog with facial photo", it is recommended to combine it with the integration of a social networking site such as Facebook in order to boost perceptions of "benevolence".

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