Constructing Inequality in Multilingual Classrooms

References (459)

1. Notes
2. I wish to acknowledge the support from the Ministerio de Ciencia y Tecnologia through the projects "Socio-pragmatic Analysis of Intercultural Communica- tion in Educational Practices: Toward Integration in the Classroom" (BFF 2003-04830) and "Multilingualism in Schools: A Critical Sociolinguistic Anal- ysis of Educational Linguistics Programmes in the Madrid Region" (HUM2007- 64694); within the National Plan for R&D&I and from the Universidad Autóno- ma de Madrid and the Council of Education and Science of the Community of Madrid through the project "Cultural and Linguistic Diversity: A Proposal of Strategies and Resources for Education" (ref.: 06/0122/200).
3. I Plan Madrid de Convivencia Social e Intercultural, designed by the Madrid Council. This year a II Plan has been published.
4. In Giddens' words: "settings of action and interaction, distributed across time- space and reproduced in the 'reversible time' of day-to-day activities, are inte- gral to the structured form which both social life and language possess" (1976: 215).
5. Freire's pedagogy is essentially a process by which "the oppressed unveil the world of aggression and through praxis commit themselves to its transforma- tion" (Freire 1970: 54).
6. The contribution of Monica Heller, as part of the research team, was crucial in the formulation of these questions.
7. Ethnographic observation and recording by Pérez-Milans [3d_V090605DS].
8. Tetouan was the capital of Morocco under Spanish colonisation.
9. Although the administrative regulations stated that work permits should not be given for activities characterised by high levels of unemployment among the local population, it should be remembered that it was in the late 1970s when large-scale unemployment began to rise.
10. Until that moment, the regulations applied comprised a set of decrees and ad- ministrative circulars based on a Decree Law from 1974 (n 522) under the discretional power of the General Direction for State Security.
11. A total of 29 states, including 25 European Union states and four non-EU mem- bers (Iceland, Norway, Liechtenstein and Switzerland) are bound by the full set of rules set out in the Schengen Agreement (as amended), and so far 24 have fully implemented its provisions. See European Union 2000. The Schengen acquis -Agreement between the Governments of the States of the Benelux Economic Union, the Federal Republic of Germany and the French Republic on the gradual abolition of checks at their common borders. Official Journal L 239, 22/09/2000, 0013-0018. 2265_12_Note_371-384.indd 371 24/5/2010 11:25:41
12. According to the estimates of the Institute of Demography of the CSIC and to the Annuals of Migrations, the number of legal residents after these regularisa- tion operations was about 490,000, including those aged under 18.
13. In fact, in 1991, 60 percent of immigrants did not have papers in order; the cur- rent proportion is about 10 percent (between 60,000 and 70,000 people). In 1997 the Government set a quota of 15,000 work permits in Spain, but by the end of the year over 74,000 applications had been received. This forced an en- largement of the quota to more than 24,000.
14. Although 60,000 potential applications were identified, less than 25,000 were submitted. This failure in the regularisation is attributed to problems both of an informative and administrative nature, and to one of concept, because the situ- ation of illegality of the so-called "irregulars" prevented them from accessing the benefits of this process.
15. Everything seems to show, however, that the newly-elected Socialist govern- ment, under Prime Minister Zapatero, will apply a more restrictive policy.
16. "The Plan [for Educational Compensation] will be developed under the prin- ciple of normalisation and attention to diversity. In other words, the educa- tional attention provided to students with compensatory needs will be given in the framework of the existing institutions and services available to the popula- tion as a whole, while it will be adapted to the characteristics of this student body and implemented via specific programmes" (Regional Plan for Educa- tional Compensation, p.13).
17. Instructions from the Madrid Region Deputy Secretary of the Department of Education (2002), which regulates the Welcome Classes under the Welcome Programme so that foreign students can join the educational system.
18. Ethnographic observation and recording by Pérez-Milans [3d_V090605DS].
19. This analysis was inspired by the model developed by John Berry (Berry 1990; Berry and Sam 1997) to describe the acculturation strategies of immigrant groups according to their attitudes towards their own culture and towards the host society culture, which I have used as a heuristic tool for this analysis. However, since Berry's model was originally developed to systematise indi- vidual responses, not group behaviour, group responses or ideologies, I have modified it significantly, following Grad (Grad 2001; for a similar adaptation, see Montreuil and Bourhis 2001).
20. Plan Regional para la Inmigración de la Comunidad de Madrid (Madrid Gov- ernment Plan for Immigration) 2001-2003; Plan Regional de Compensación Educativa de la Comunidad de Madrid (Madrid Government Regional Plan for Educational Compensation) 2000; Order 2316/1999, of October 15, of the Ministry of Education, by which the application of educational compensation is regulated; Instructions; definitions of transition classes, July 16, 2003; New regulation of 8 March 2004. 2265_12_Note_371-384.indd 372 24/5/2010 11:25:41
21. The teaching of the language of origin, now seen as a bridge between cultures and an essential part of intercultural education, does not have any financing programme (Bekemans and Ortiz de Urbina 1997).
22. For more information, see the LODE (Ley Orgánica de Educación), the LOGSE (Ley Orgánica General del Sistema Educativo) and the LOPEG (Ley Orgánica de la Participación, la Evaluación y el Gobierno de Centros Docentes), laws which regulate the provision of education in Spain.
23. The data collected on schools in Madrid is from the European project "Multi- lingual Cities" led by the University of Tilburg in the Netherlands and by the and Mijares (2003). Another project, entitled "Diversidad Cultural y Lingüística: Una Propuesta de Estrategias y Recursos para la Educación" [Cultural and linguistic diversity: A proposal of strategies and resources for education] and led by Luisa Martin Rojo was carried out in conjunction with the above mentioned European team.
24. For further information on the status of community languages in schools, see Mijares (2007) and MacPake et al. (2007).
25. Ethnographic observation and recording by Alcalá [Madroño school].
26. These research projects are: "Cultural and Linguistic Diversity: A Proposal of Strategies and Resources for Education", financed by the Council of Education and Science of the Community of Madrid, Humanities and Social Sciences Projects (ref.: 06/0122/2000), "Socio-pragmatic Analysis of Intercultural Com- munication in Educational Practices: Toward Integration in the Classroom" (BFF 2003-04830), and "Multilingualism in Schools: A Critical Sociolinguistic Analysis of Educational Linguistics Programs in the Madrid Region", within the National Plan of R&D&I of the Ministry of Science and Technology of Spain (HUM2007-64694).
27. Ethnographic observation and recording by Patiño-Santos [1d_E220104S].
28. Ethnographic observation and recording by Patiño-Santos [1d_E220104S].
29. Among such, the manifestos of Santander, of Alicante and of the 8th Linguis- tics Congress, all calling for better quality of education and of instruction- language teaching, as well as the manifestos made in Catalonia against segre- gation in special schools for students with different cultural backgrounds.
30. I applied Goffman's concept, continuing a line of research initiated in 1999 with a study of the jargon used by juvenile delinquents.
31. It should be noted that in the article by Labov (1972), The logic of non-standard English, no text by Bernstein is cited directly; rather, reference is made to his work on the basis of how it has been interpreted by other authors.
32. Together with property or wealth, any of the elements that Weber associates with differences in status, such as ethnic origin, language, or religion, may cre- ate social closure. 2265_12_Note_371-384.indd 373 24/5/2010 11:25:42
33. information, as was each researcher's review. I would like to thank all of them for their time, their comments, and their notes.
34. For instance the Spanish we heard from the Latin American soap-operas and television programmes (Venezuelan, Mexican, Argentinean, etc.) or the popu- lar action films (war, karate, science fiction, etc.) in which certain characters speak languages that were far-off and even unrecognisable for us, such as Rus- sian, Chinese, Arabic, and their different varieties.
35. This was stated in some of the brochures for these schools, distributed among the Embassies of the countries of origin of the various nationalities represented.
36. See the Project "Diversidad Cultural y Lingüística: Una Propuesta de Estrate- gias y Recursos para la Educación" [Cultural and linguistic diversity: A pro- posal of strategies and resources for education], Humanities and Social Science Projects, Madrid Autonomous Region Department of Education, ref: 06/0122/2000 (2000-2001), directed by Luisa Martín Rojo. The results were published in Martín Rojo ed. (2003).
37. All these aspects are summarised in Table 3.
38. 2005. [Report on the foreign population officially resident in Madrid. May 2005]. OFRIM, Comunidad de Madrid.
39. The significant increase in student numbers during this academic year is the result of the great number of students enrolled in night classes.
40. Thus, for the 2004/5 school year, a total of 73 students of migrant backgrounds were enrolled, 35 of whom were of Latin American origin (mostly from Co- lombia and Ecuador, 15 and 14 respectively). The other students were from Morocco (10), Romania (9) Equatorial Guinea (7) and, to a lesser extent, from Armenia, Iraq, Ukraine and China.
41. A detailed description of this course as well as the intervention in the school and what it generated in teachers' attitudes towards their students of Moroccan origin can be found in Mijares (2007) "Aprendiendo la lengua de nuestros alumnos" [Learning our students' language], in Martín Rojo and Mijares (eds.) Voces del aula, 217-240. Madrid: CREADE/CIDE.
42. Irina Rasskin Gutman had done her internship for the Pedagogic Adaptation course (Curso de Adaptación Pedagógica) in Jardines, specialising in psycho- pedagogy.
43. There were a total of five students of migrant background: María from Ecuador, Mariana from Equatorial Guinea, Mohamed from Morocco, Nicolau from Romania and XiaoYün of Chinese origin.
44. This situation of isolation is similar to that described by Pérez-Milans in stu- dents in the same group in the IES Violetas, and is explained in depth in Chap- ter 8.
45. Bridging Class in the "Welcome Programme", part of a plan to include students of migrant background in the educational system. Academic year 2003-2004.
46. According to figures published in the city of Madrid's 'Observatory on Migra- tion and Intercultural Sense of Community' () July 2006 yearbook, the number of migrant residents in this neighbourhood was 27.97 percent. This proves that the neighbourhood still has autochthonous residents, although they do not seem to send their children to the school there.
47. The estimate of the real number of students attending this school is difficult to make due to constant turnover. Over the course of the year, new students arrive and old students leave for various reasons. These were the figures given at the beginning of the ethnographic observation, but four months later there were roughly 170 students. The current number is considerably lower: the school houses only 80 students.
48. The ratio at the other schools is 30 students per class. At this school, there were classes with only eight students. And subsequently, this figure became even lower.
49. For a more detailed description of this school see Patiño-Santos 2007, "Extra- ños en las aulas" [Strangers in class]. In Luisa Martín Rojo and Laura Mijares (eds.), Voces del Aula. Etnografías de la escuela multilingüe. Madrid: CREADE/CIDE, 191-216.
50. They would get out of certain classes and hide in the unoccupied upper floors of the building.
51. Ethnographic observation and recording by Pérez-Milans [1a_V240204E].
52. Ethnographic observation and recording by Patiño-Santos [4a_E260104E].
53. Ethnographic observation and recording by Pérez-Milans [1a_V250304E].
54. Jardines' School Curricular Project collected by Rasskin Gutman.
55. I am grateful to Rosina Márquez Reiter and Adriana Patiño-Santos for their comments on this chapter, which have helped give it sharper focus.
56. The Natural Method is a general learning theory based on the empirical tradi- tion of sensation and association psychology in the 19th century. It is also influ- enced by German "Gestalt-Psychologie". This method implies an intuitive and direct perception of the learning object, which activates the basic sensorial functions. Therefore, this deductive procedure allows us to integrate abstract notions. The Natural Method is applied to reading, writing and basic maths.
57. Ethnographic observation and recording by Alcalá [5v_P290404L].
58. Ethnographic observation and recording by Alcalá [5v_P290404L].
59. Ethnographic observation and recording by Alcalá [5v_P290404L].
60. Ethnographic observation and recording by Alcalá [5v_P290404L].
61. Ethnographic observation and recording by Patiño-Santos [1d_E250104L].
62. Ethnographic observation and recording by Patiño-Santos [1d_E250104L].
63. Ethnographic observation and recording by Patiño-Santos [1d_E250104L]. 2265_12_Note_371-384.indd 377 24/5/2010 11:25:42
64. The clown of the classroom "could be described in terms of the way . . . [he] changed the context of the classroom setting which was shaped by the instruc- tional rituals" (McLaren 1985: 90).
65. Ethnographic observation and recording by Alcalá [1d_P201003Cl].
66. Ethnographic observation and recording by Pérez-Milans [U1_5-6v_ V210404A_a].
67. Ethnographic observation and recording by Patiño-Santos [1d_E220104S].
68. Ethnographic observation and recording by Pérez-Milans [U1_2V_ V200404A_a].
69. Ethnographic observation and recording by Pérez-Milans [U1_2_3v_ V200404A_b].
70. Ethnographic observation and recording by Patiño-Santos [1d_E220104S].
71. I am very grateful to Luci Nussbaum, Monica Heller and José del Valle for their comments and help on this chapter. 2265_12_Note_371-384.indd 379 24/5/2010 11:25:42
72. It should be borne in mind that during the year in which this observation was made, the Spanish as a Second Language Programme was being implemented for the first time. Since then, audiovisual materials and textbooks have been introduced for the teaching of Spanish as a Second Language in secondary edu- cation.
73. Newcomer students are in the same position as Latinos in the U.S., who are told to "learn English to become American", but they are seen a "Latinos" forever.
74. Ethnographic observation and recording by Patiño Santos [1d_E220104S1].
75. Ethnographic observation and recording by Alcalá [2d_P240103E].
76. Ethnographic observation and recording by Alcalá [1v_P240204S].
77. Ethnographic observation and recording by Alcalá [Madroño].
78. Teachers' Focus group [1a_140606GD].
79. Ethnographic observation and recording by Patiño Santos [2d_E270104L].
80. Ethnographic observation and recording by Patiño Santos [2d_E270104L].
81. Ethnographic observation and recording by Pérez-Milans [U1_1-2v_ V200404A_a(2)].
82. In this case, there was a large desk, shared by all, with others grouped in differ- ent work areas; one for natural sciences and maths, an area for social skills, a reading corner, one for handwriting and spelling, a games desk, a phonetics area, a corner for communicative methods and a work desk for large groups (Pérez-Milans 2007a: 70).
83. The way in which this excerpt is transcribed by the researcher Adil Moustaui, using Arabic characters, does not presuppose any trend towards standardisation based on standard modern Arabic, but rather, it respects the linguistic features that characterise it, and in particular, the loss of the final vowel in the verbal inflection, as well as certain lexical traits. Nowadays, there is a tendency in Morocco to defend the normalisation of writing in Darija, utilising Arabic char- acters, adapted to the phonetic, phonological and morphosyntactic variations presented by this variety with respect to standard modern Arabic.
84. Ethnographic observation and recording by Pérez-Milans [3v_V200404A-C].
85. Ethnographic observation and recording by Pérez-Milans [3v_V200404A-C].
86. Pinyin is used as a primary Romanisation system for Chinese characters throughout this book.
87. Ethnographic observation and recording by Pérez-Milans [3d_V090605DS].
88. Eventually, these non-Spanish speakers could be part of the mainstream classes if they reach the level required.
89. Ethnographic observation and recording by Pérez-Milans [U1-v_V220404A- b].
90. Focus group discussion with school principals [1a_080606GD].
91. This survey was carried out as part of the UAM Comunidad de Madrid research project in 2007.
92. del Valle (2007; personal communication). 2265_12_Note_371-384.indd 381 24/5/2010 11:25:42
93. Focus group of school principals [1a_080606GD].
94. The result is that groups of people ("the others") are grouped in a chronological hierarchy rather than in geographic spaces (Mignolo 1998: 35).
95. In all education systems, not only in postcolonial contexts, those features which are indexical of children's social class and regional varieties are corrected. The ideology of standardisation underlies any educational system (Milroy 2001).
96. As del Valle (2000: 15-34) shows, the monoglossic culture and the dogma of homogeneity have their roots in the processes of national independence in Latin-American and in Spain's projects of modernisation during the 19th cen- tury (see also del Valle and Gabriel-Stheeman 2004: 15-34).
97. We are very grateful to Stanton Wortham and Monica Heller for their com- ments on this chapter.
98. For more information about the 2006-2007 school statistics see Datos básicos de la educación en España en el curso 2006/2007 [Basic data about the Span- ish education system in the 2006/2007 school year): http://www.mec.es/mecd/ estadisticas/educativas/dcce/DATOS_Y_CIFRAS_WEB.pdf
99. Over the past decades, focus groups have emerged as a key technique for gath- ering qualitative data, across a wide range of academic and applied research areas. Focus groups allow researchers to concentrate on the role of the group in producing interaction and the role of the moderator in guiding this interaction. In the integrative approach I present in this book, this technique is used to col- lect discursive data and to analyse social representations.
100. In On face-work, Goffman articulates how people negotiate face in everyday social interaction, understanding by this term "an image of self delineated in terms of approved social attributes" (Goffman 1963: 5).
101. See also, Foucault (1975) for an analysis of the processes of normalisation and the effects of discipline in institutions like schools.
102. Al-Andalus is the Arab name for those parts of the Iberian Peninsula ruled by Muslims between 711 and 1492.
103. Ethnographic observation and recording by Rasskin Gutman [4d_J261104S].
104. Ethnographic observation and recording by Rasskin Gutman [4d_J261104S].
105. Ethnographic observation and recording by Rasskin Gutman [4d_J261104S].
106. Following Goffman, a change in footing "implies a change in the alignment we take up ourselves and the others present as expressed in the way we manage the production or reception of an utterance. A change in footing is another way of talking about a change in our frame for events. This paper [i.e. Goffman's essay on footing] is largely concerned with pointing out that participants over the course of their speaking constantly change their footing, and these changes be- ing a persistent feature of natural talk" (Goffman 1981: 84). Thus, "footing" brings out the need to replace the "speaker" with a "production format" which consists of three components: animator, author, principal.
107. Ethnographic observation and recording by Rasskin Gutman [4d_J261104S]. 2265_12_Note_371-384.indd 382 24/5/2010 11:25:42
108. Ethnographic observation and recording by Pérez-Milans [U1_1_2v_ V200404A_a].
109. Ethnographic observation and recording by Pérez-Milans [U1_1_2v_ V200404A_a].
110. Focus group discussion [1a_080606GD].
111. Ethnographic observation and recording by Patiño-Santos [1d_E260104S].
112. Focus group discussion of school principals [1a_080606GD].
113. Focus group discussion of school principals [1a_080606GD].
114. Social Guarantee Programmes are aimed at providing all youths with a mini- mum basic and professional training which will allow them to work or to con- tinue their education, above all in Intermediate Specific Vocational Training, which facilitates students' incorporation into the labour market. These pro- grammes are regulated by each Autonomous Community. For more informa- tion, visit: http://www.eurydice.org/.
115. In-depth interview with the Language teacher from Evangelista, recorded by Patiño-Santos [4a_E260104E].
116. In-depth interview with the Spanish as a Second Language teacher at Violetas, from Pérez-Milan's fieldwork diary.
117. Focus group discussion [1a_080606GD].
118. In this chapter, I will not analyse these hidden discourses, which are generated outside the scope of the class, for example in meetings, or even in cultural products such as hip-hop, where students may speak freely about what goes on in the classroom, or present their own view of education and its achievements. In these situations, there may be a clear ideological production, articulating and focusing the whole body of resistance practices. This chapter centres, rather, on the moment at which dissent makes its appearance in the class.
119. The studies of L2 classroom interaction in which teachers seek to produce in- teractions equivalent to ordinary conversation have helped reveal the differ- ences between these two types of interaction (Warren 1993; Edwards and West- gats 1994; Seedhouse 2004).
120. Ethnographic observation and recording by Patiño-Santos [1d_E250104L].
121. Ethnographic observation and recording by Patiño-Santos [1d_E250104L].
122. Ethnographic observation and recording by Patiño-Santos [1d_E250104L].
123. Ethnographic observation and recording by Patiño-Santos [1d_E260104S ].
124. Ethnographic observation and recording by Alcalá [1d_P201003Cl].
125. Ethnographic observation and recording by Alcalá [1d_P201003Cl].
126. Ethnographic observation and recording by Patiño-Santos [1d_E250104L]. 2265_12_Note_371-384.indd 383 24/5/2010 11:25:42
127. Ethnographic observation and recording by Patiño-Santos [1d_E250104L].
128. Ethnographic observation and recording by Patiño-Santos [1d_E250104L].
129. Ethnographic observation and recording by Rasskin-Gutman [1v_J091204S].
130. Ethnographic observation and recording by Alcalá [1d_P201003Cl].
131. Austin (1962) identifies two sets of general appropriateness conditions, which he calls "felicity conditions", that must be fulfilled in order for the "successful" functioning of the performative speech act. The first set includes the one we have here: the person and circumstances must be appropriate for the conven- tional procedure.
132. Ethnographic observation and recording by Pérez-Milans [3d_V090605DS].
133. Ethnographic observation and recording by Patiño-Santos [1d_E220104S].
134. Ethnographic observation and recording by Patiño-Santos [1d_E2201045].
135. Ethnographic observation and recording by Alcalá [3v_P280404P].
136. Linguistic resistance, mainly through competitive styles of interaction, is now spreading in secondary schools in Madrid, as in other parts of the world, and is part of school counter culture. In this case, the teacher is the target of these competitive language games, as students are the target of his disciplining ac- tion. In future research we will address this process of resistance through lan- guage games and music, in particular, hip-hop contests.
137. Social closure is a process by which groups seek to maintain exclusive control over symbolic resources, such as language, by limiting access to them.
138. As Rampton (2001: 262) notes, sociology, psychology and anthropology can provide concepts that can be integrated into the analysis and interpretation of specific data and that may then also serve as a practical "bridge" back and forth between sociolinguistics and the fields where these concepts originate.
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