A review of computational intelligence in RTS games
2013, 2013 IEEE Symposium on Foundations of Computational Intelligence (FOCI)
https://doi.org/10.1109/FOCI.2013.6602463Abstract
Real-time strategy games offer a wide variety of fundamental AI research challenges. Most of these challenges have applications outside the game domain. This paper provides a review on computational intelligence in real-time strategy games (RTS). It starts with challenges in real-time strategy games, then it reviews different tasks to overcome this challenges. Later, it describes the techniques used to solve this challenges and it makes a relationship between techniques and tasks. Finally, it presents a set of different frameworks used as test-beds for the techniques employed. This paper is intended to be a starting point for future researchers on this topic.
References (87)
- D. W. Aha, M. Molineaux, and M. J. V. Ponsen, "Learning to win: Case-based plan selection in a real-time strategy game," in International Conference on Case-Based Reasoning, ser. Lecture Notes in Computer Science, H. Muñoz-Avila and F. Ricci, Eds., vol. 3620. Springer, 2005, pp. 5-20.
- V. Alcázar, D. Borrajo, and C. Linares López, "Modelling a RTS planning domain with cost conversion and rewards," in Artificial Intel- ligence in Games. Workshop of the Eighteenth European Conference on Artificial Intelligence, Patras, Greece, 2008, pp. 50-54.
- P. Avery and S. J. Louis, "Coevolving team tactics for a real-time strategy game," in IEEE Congress on Evolutionary Computation. IEEE, 2010, pp. 1-8.
- R.-K. Balla and A. Fern, "UCT for tactical assault planning in real- time strategy games," in International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence, C. Boutilier, Ed., 2009, pp. 40-45.
- N. Beume, T. Hein, B. Naujoks, N. Piatkowski, M. Preuss, and S. Wessing, "Intelligent anti-grouping in real-time strategy games," in IEEE Symposium on Computational Intelligence and Games, P. Hingston and L. Barone, Eds. IEEE, 2008, pp. 63-70.
- G. H. Burgin and L. J. Fogel, "Air-to-air combat tactics synthesis and analysis program based on an adaptive maneuvering logic," Journal of Cybernetics, vol. 2, no. 4, pp. 60-68, 1972.
- M. Buro, "RTS games and real-time AI research," in Behavior Rep- resentation in Modeling and Simulation Conference, vol. 1. Curran Associates, Inc., 2004.
- S. Butler and Y. Demiris, "Partial observability during predictions of the opponent's movements in an RTS game," in IEEE Conference on Computational Intelligence and Games, G. N. Yannakakis and J. Togelius, Eds. IEEE, 2010, pp. 46-53.
- H. Chan, A. Fern, S. Ray, N. Wilson, and C. Ventura, "Online planning for resource production in real-time strategy games," in International Conference on Automated Planning and Scheduling, M. S. Boddy et al., Eds. The AAAI Press, 2007, pp. 65-72.
- D. Cheng and R. Thawonmas, "Case-based plan recognition for real- time strategy games," in GameOn Conference, A. El-Rhalibi and D. van Welden, Eds. EUROSIS, 2004, pp. 36-40.
- M. Chung, M. Buro, and J. Schaeffer, "Monte Carlo Planning in RTS Games," in IEEE Symposium on Computational Intelligence and Games. IEEE, 2005.
- A. Dahlbom and L. Niklasson, "Goal-directed hierarchical dynamic scripting for RTS games," in Artificial Intelligence and Interactive Digital Entertainment, J. E. Laird and J. Schaeffer, Eds. The AAAI Press, 2006, pp. 21-28.
- H. Danielsiek, R. Stür, A. Thom, N. Beume, B. Naujoks, and M. Preuss, "Intelligent moving of groups in real-time strategy games," in IEEE Symposium on Computational Intelligence and Games, P. Hingston and L. Barone, Eds. IEEE, 2008, pp. 71-78.
- E. W. Dereszynski, J. Hostetler, A. Fern, T. G. Dietterich, T.-T. Hoang, and M. Udarbe, "Learning probabilistic behavior models in real- time strategy games," in Artificial Intelligence and Interactive Digital Entertainment Conference, V. Bulitko and M. O. Riedl, Eds. The AAAI Press, 2011.
- Entertainment Software Association and Others, "Essential facts about the computer and video game industry," 2011. [Online]. Available: http://www.theesa.com/facts/pdfs/ESA EF 2011.pdf
- A. Fernández-Ares, A. M. Mora, J. J. Merelo Guervós, P. García- Sánchez, and C. M. Fernandes, "Optimizing player behavior in a real- time strategy game using evolutionary algorithms," in IEEE Congress on Evolutionary Computation. IEEE, 2011, pp. 2017-2024.
- --, "Optimizing strategy parameters in a game bot," in International Work-Conference on Artificial Neural Networks, ser. Lecture Notes in Computer Science, J. Cabestany et al., Eds., vol. 6692. Springer, 2011, pp. 325-332.
- A. Fernndez-Ares, P. Garca-Snchez, A. M. Mora, and J. J. Merelo, "Adaptive bots for real-time strategy games via map characterization," in Computational Intelligence and Games. IEEE, 2012, pp. 417-423.
- L. Fogel and G. Burgin, "Competitive goal-seeking through evolution- ary programming." DTIC Document, Tech. Rep., 1969.
- M. Frade, F. F. de Vega, and C. Cotta, "Modelling video games' landscapes by means of genetic terrain programming -a new approach for improving users' experience," in Applications of Evolutionary Computing, ser. Lecture Notes in Computer Science, M. Giacobini et al., Eds., vol. 4974. Springer, 2008, pp. 485-490.
- --, "Breeding terrains with genetic terrain programming: The evolu- tion of terrain generators," International Journal of Computer Games Technology, vol. 2009, 2009.
- --, "Evolution of artificial terrains for video games based on accessibility," in Applications of Evolutionary Computation 2010, ser. Lecture Notes in Computer Science, C. D. Chio et al., Eds., vol. 6024. Springer-Verlag, 2010, pp. 90-99.
- --, "Evolution of artificial terrains for video games based on ob- stacles edge length," in IEEE Congress on Evolutionary Computation. IEEE, 2010, pp. 1-8.
- J. A. García Gutiérrez, C. Cotta, and A. J. Fernández Leiva, "Design of emergent and adaptive virtual players in a war RTS game," in International Work-Conference on the Interplay Between Natural and Artificial Computation, ser. Lecture Notes in Computer Science, J. M. Ferrández et al., Eds., vol. 6686. Springer, 2011, pp. 372-382.
- W. Gong, E. Lim, P. Achananuparp, F. Zhu, D. Lo, and F. Chong Tat Chua, "In-game action list segmentation and labeling in real-time strategy games," in Computational Intelligence and Games. IEEE, 2012, pp. 147-154.
- M. Grimani, "Wall Building for RTS Games," in AI Game Program- ming Wisdom 2. Hingham, Massachusetts: Charles River Media, Inc., 2004, pp. 425-437.
- M. Gunnerud, "A CBR/RL system for learning micromanagement in real-time strategy games," Master's thesis, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, 2009.
- J. Hagelbäck and S. J. Johansson, "Dealing with fog of war in a real time strategy game environment," in IEEE Symposium on Computational Intelligence and Games, P. Hingston and L. Barone, Eds. IEEE, 2008, pp. 55-62.
- --, "The rise of potential fields in real time strategy bots," in Ar- tificial Intelligence and Interactive Digital Entertainment Conference, C. Darken and M. Mateas, Eds. The AAAI Press, 2008.
- --, "Using multi-agent potential fields in real-time strategy games," in Autonomous Agents and Multiagent Systems, L. Padgham et al., Eds. IFAAMAS, 2008, pp. 631-638.
- --, "Measuring player experience on runtime dynamic difficulty scaling in an RTS game," in IEEE Symposium on Computational Intelligence and Games, P. L. Lanzi, Ed. IEEE, 2009, pp. 46-52.
- --, "A multi-agent potential field-based bot for a full RTS game scenario," in Artificial Intelligence and Interactive Digital Entertain- ment Conference, C. Darken and G. M. Youngblood, Eds. The AAAI Press, 2009.
- J. Hagelbck, "Potential-field based navigation in StarCraft," in Com- putational Intelligence and Games. IEEE, 2012, pp. 388-393.
- J.-L. Hsieh and C.-T. Sun, "Building a player strategy model by analyzing replays of real-time strategy games," in International Joint Conference on Neural Networks. IEEE, 2008, pp. 3106-3111.
- S.-H. Jang and S.-B. Cho, "Evolving neural NPCs with layered influence map in the real-time simulation game 'Conqueror'," in IEEE Symposium on Computational Intelligence and Games, P. Hingston and L. Barone, Eds. IEEE, 2008, pp. 385-388.
- S.-H. Jang, J. Yoon, and S.-B. Cho, "Optimal strategy selection of non- player character on real time strategy game using a speciated evolu- tionary algorithm," in IEEE Symposium on Computational Intelligence and Games, P. L. Lanzi, Ed. IEEE, 2009, pp. 75-79.
- F. Kabanza, P. Bellefeuille, F. Bisson, A. R. Benaskeur, and H. Iran- doust, "Opponent behaviour recognition for real-time strategy games," in Plan, Activity, and Intent Recognition, ser. AAAI Workshops, vol. WS-10-05. The AAAI Press, 2010.
- D. Keaveney and C. O'Riordan, "Analysing the fitness landscape of an abstract real-time strategy game," in GameOn Conference, V. J. Botti et al., Eds. EUROSIS, 2008, pp. 51-55.
- --, "Evolving robust strategies for an abstract real-time strategy game," in IEEE Symposium on Computational Intelligence and Games, P. L. Lanzi, Ed. IEEE, 2009, pp. 371-378.
- --, "Evolving coordination for real-time strategy games," IEEE Transactions on Computational Intelligence and AI in Games, vol. 3, no. 2, pp. 155-167, 2011.
- A. Kovarsky and M. Buro, "A First Look at Build-Order Optimization in Real-Time Strategy Games," in GameOn Conference, L. Wolf and M. Magnor, Eds. EUROSIS, 2006, pp. 18-22.
- J. Laagland, "A HTN planner for a real-time strategy game." [Online]. Available: http://hmi.ewi.utwente.nl/verslagen/capita-selecta/ CS-Laagland-Jasper.pdf
- P. Lichocki, K. Krawiec, and W. Jaskowski, "Evolving teams of cooperating agents for real-time strategy game," in EvoWorkshops, ser. Lecture Notes in Computer Science, M. Giacobini et al., Eds., vol. 5484. Springer, 2009, pp. 333-342.
- J. Ludwig and A. Farley, "Examining extended dynamic scripting in a tactical game framework," in Artificial Intelligence and Interactive Digital Entertainment, C. Darken and G. M. Youngblood, Eds. The AAAI Press, 2009.
- T. Mahlmann, J. Togelius, and G. N. Yannakakis, "Spicing up map generation," in EvoApplications, ser. Lecture Notes in Computer Science, C. D. Chio et al., Eds., vol. 7248. Springer, 2012, pp. 224-233.
- C. Miles, S. Louis, N. Cole, and J. McDonnell, "Learning to play like a human: case injected genetic algorithms for strategic computer gaming," in Congress on Evolutionary Computation, vol. 2, 2004, pp. 1441-1448.
- C. Miles and S. J. Louis, "Case-injection improves response time for a real-time strategy game," in IEEE Symposium on Computational Intelligence and Games. IEEE, 2005.
- --, "Towards the co-evolution of influence map tree based strategy game players," in IEEE Symposium on Computational Intelligence and Games, S. J. Louis and G. Kendall, Eds. IEEE, 2006, pp. 75-82.
- C. E. Miles, "Co-evolving real-time strategy game players," Ph.D. dissertation, University of Nevada, Reno, NV, USA, 2007.
- K. Mishra, S. Ontañón, and A. Ram, "Situation assessment for plan retrieval in real-time strategy games," in European Conference on Advances in Case-Based Reasoning, ser. Lecture Notes in Computer Science, K.-D. Althoff et al., Eds., vol. 5239. Springer, 2008, pp. 355-369.
- M. Molineaux and D. Aha, "Defeating novel opponents in a real- time strategy game," in International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence Workshop on Reasoning, Representation, and Learning in Computer Games, D. W. Aha et al., Eds. The AAAI Press, 2005, pp. 72-77.
- M. Molineaux, D. W. Aha, and P. Moore, "Learning continuous action models in a real-time strategy environment," in Florida Artificial Intelligence Research Society Conference, D. Wilson and H. C. Lane, Eds. The AAAI Press, 2008, pp. 257-262.
- M. Molineaux, M. Klenk, and D. W. Aha, "Goal-driven autonomy in a navy strategy simulation," in Proceedings of the Twenty-Fourth AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence, M. Fox and D. Poole, Eds., 2010.
- A. M. Mora, A. Fernández-Ares, J. J. Merelo Guervós, and P. García- Sánchez, "Dealing with noisy fitness in the design of a rts game bot," in EvoApplications, ser. Lecture Notes in Computer Science, C. D. Chio et al., Eds., vol. 7248. Springer, 2012, pp. 234-244.
- H. Muñoz Avila and D. Aha, "On the role of explanation for hierar- chical case-based planning in real-time strategy games," in European Conference on Case-Based Reasoning, Workshop on Explanations in CBR, 2004.
- M. Naveed, D. Kitchin, A. Crampton, L. Chrpa, and P. Gregory, "A monte-carlo path planner for dynamic and partially observable environments," in Computational Intelligence and Games.
- P. H. F. Ng, Y. J. Li, and S. C. K. Shiu, "Unit formation planning in RTS game by using potential field and fuzzy integral," in Fuzzy Systems. IEEE, 2011, pp. 178-184.
- J. K. Olesen, G. N. Yannakakis, and J. Hallam, "Real-time challenge balance in an RTS game using rtNEAT," in IEEE Symposium on Computational Intelligence and Games, P. Hingston and L. Barone, Eds. IEEE, 2008, pp. 87-94.
- S. Ontañón, K. Mishra, N. Sugandh, and A. Ram, "Case-based planning and execution for real-time strategy games," in International Conference on Case-Based Reasoning, ser. Lecture Notes in Computer Science, R. Weber and M. M. Richter, Eds., vol. 4626. Springer, 2007, pp. 164-178.
- --, "Learning from demonstration and case-based planning for real- time strategy games," in Soft Computing Applications in Industry, ser. Studies in Fuzziness and Soft Computing, B. Prasad, Ed., vol. 226. Springer, 2008, pp. 293-310.
- N. Othman, J. Decraene, W. Cai, N. Hu, M. Y. H. Low, and A. Gouail- lard, "Simulation-based optimization of StarCraft tactical AI through evolutionary computation," in Computational Intelligence and Games. IEEE, 2012, pp. 394-401.
- M. J. V. Ponsen, H. Muñoz-Avila, P. Spronck, and D. W. Aha, "Automatically generating game tactics through evolutionary learning," AI Magazine, vol. 27, no. 3, pp. 75-84, 2006.
- M. Preuss, N. Beume, H. Danielsiek, T. Hein, B. Naujoks, N. Pi- atkowski, R. Stür, A. Thom, and S. Wessing, "Towards intelligent team composition and maneuvering in real-time strategy games," IEEE Transactions on Computational Intelligence and AI in Games, vol. 2, no. 2, pp. 82-98, 2010.
- F. Sailer, M. Buro, and M. Lanctot, "Adversarial planning through strategy simulation," in IEEE Symposium on Computational Intelli- gence and Games. IEEE, 2007, pp. 80-87.
- F. Schadd, "Hierarchical opponent models for real-time strategy games," Universiteit Maastricht, Tech. Rep., 2007.
- F. Schadd, S. Bakkes, and P. Spronck, "Opponent modeling in real- time strategy games," in GameOn Conference, M. Roccetti, Ed. EUROSIS, 2007, pp. 61-68.
- M. Sharma, M. P. Holmes, J. C. Santamaría, A. Irani, C. L. Isbell Jr., and A. Ram, "Transfer learning in real-time strategy games using hybrid CBR/RL," in International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence, M. M. Veloso, Ed., 2007, pp. 1041-1046.
- S. Shoemaker, "Random Map Generation for Strategy Games," in AI Game Programming Wisdom 2. Hingham, Massachusetts: Charles River Media, Inc., 2004, pp. 405-412.
- G. Smith, P. Avery, R. Houmanfar, and S. J. Louis, "Using co- evolved RTS opponents to teach spatial tactics," in IEEE Conference on Computational Intelligence and Games, G. N. Yannakakis and J. Togelius, Eds. IEEE, 2010, pp. 146-153.
- P. Spronck, I. G. Sprinkhuizen-Kuyper, and E. O. Postma, "On-line adaptation of game opponent ai with dynamic scripting," Int. J. Intell. Games & Simulation, vol. 3, no. 1, 2004.
- K. O. Stanley, B. D. Bryant, and R. Miikkulainen, "Real-time neu- roevolution in the NERO video game," IEEE Transactions on Evolu- tionary Computation, vol. 9, no. 6, pp. 653-668, 2005.
- G. Synnaeve and P. Bessiere, "A bayesian model for opening predic- tion in RTS games with application to StarCraft," in Computational Intelligence and Games. IEEE, 2011, pp. 281 -288.
- --, "A bayesian model for RTS units control applied to StarCraft," in IEEE Conference on Computational Intelligence and Games. IEEE, 2011, pp. 190 -196.
- --, "Special tactics: a bayesian approach to tactical decision- making," in Computational Intelligence and Games. IEEE, 2012, pp. 409-416.
- J. Togelius, M. Preuss, N. Beume, S. Wessing, J. Hagelbäck, and G. N. Yannakakis, "Multiobjective exploration of the Starcraft map space," in IEEE Conference on Computational Intelligence and Games, G. N. Yannakakis and J. Togelius, Eds. IEEE, 2010, pp. 265-272.
- J. Togelius, G. N. Yannakakis, K. O. Stanley, and C. Browne, "Search- based procedural content generation: A taxonomy and survey," IEEE Transactions on Computational Intelligence and AI in Games, vol. 3, no. 3, pp. 172-186, 2011.
- C. K. Tong, C. K. On, J. Teo, and A. M. J. Kiring, "Evolving neural controllers using GA for Warcraft 3 real time strategy game," in Bio- Inspired Computing: Theories and Applications. IEEE, 2011, pp. 15-20.
- J. M. Traish and J. R. Tulip, "Towards adaptive online RTS AI with NEAT," in Computational Intelligence and Games. IEEE, 2012, pp. 430-437.
- A. Trusty, S. Ontañón, and A. Ram, "Stochastic plan optimization in real-time strategy games," in Artificial Intelligence and Interactive Digital Entertainment, C. Darken and M. Mateas, Eds. The AAAI Press, 2008.
- L. van der Blom, S. Bakkes, and P. Spronck, "Map-adaptive artificial intelligence for video games," in GameOn Conference, M. Roccetti, Ed. EUROSIS, 2007, pp. 53-60.
- M. van der Heijden, S. Bakkes, and P. Spronck, "Dynamic formations in real-time strategy games," in IEEE Symposium on Computational Intelligence and Games, P. Hingston and L. Barone, Eds. IEEE, 2008, pp. 47-54.
- B. G. Weber and M. Mateas, "A data mining approach to strategy prediction," in IEEE Symposium on Computational Intelligence and Games, P. L. Lanzi, Ed. IEEE, 2009, pp. 140-147.
- B. G. Weber, M. Mateas, and A. Jhala, "Applying goal-driven au- tonomy to StarCraft," in Artificial Intelligence and Interactive Digital Entertainment Conference, G. M. Youngblood and V. Bulitko, Eds. The AAAI Press, 2010.
- S. Wender and I. Watson, "Applying reinforcement learning to small scale combat in the real-time strategy game StarCraft:Broodwar," in Computational Intelligence and Games. IEEE, 2012, pp. 402-408.
- S. Wintermute, J. Z. Xu, and J. E. Laird, "SORTS: A human-level approach to real-time strategy ai," in Artificial Intelligence and Inter- active Digital Entertainment Conference, J. Schaeffer and M. Mateas, Eds. The AAAI Press, 2007, pp. 55-60.
- G. N. Yannakakis, "Game ai revisited," in Proceedings of the 9th conference on Computing Frontiers, ser. CF '12. New York, NY, USA: ACM, 2012, pp. 285-292.
- G. N. Yannakakis and J. Togelius, "Experience-driven procedural content generation," IEEE Transactions on Affective Computing, vol. 2, no. 3, pp. 147-161, 2011.