Decoding the Crucifixion Experience

Crucifixion misconceptions in medicine studies, 2020

Medical studies increasingly include an interest in what contributes to death by crucifixion. Some historical aspects of crucifixion play a role in the various theories about the causes of death. However, in the recent medical literature, there are several misconceptions about the practice of crucifixion. Generally, the assertions made in the articles cannot be sustained by ancient Greek and Latin sources. There is much more uncertainty about the practice of crucifixion than is often assumed. This article discusses a few misconceptions so that future theories about Jesus’ death will hopefully be more historically grounded and more interdisciplinary research will be undertaken.

A common assumption about crucifixions is that they were generally carried out in approximately the same way as the crucifixion of Jesus, i.e., that the condemned was attached to some kind of vertical construction in order to be executed. In the search of historical knowledge about this punishment, ancient Greek texts containing the verb anastauroun or anaskolopizein are often referred to. The present paper suggests that the conclusions drawn from these texts may be unsatisfactory. This suggestion is based on the fact that the majority of the texts do not specify what kind of suspension they refer to. In order to create a firm textual basis for the study of crucifixion we need to take into account a broader terminology, and to find more intra-and extratextual indications about the nature of the punishment. The result of this critical view is that it significantly reduces the number of relevant texts and takes some new texts into consideration.

The prevailing opinion about crucifixions is that they were carried out in approximately the same way as the crucifixion of Jesus, i.e., that the condemned were attached by their limbs to crosses in order to be executed. In search of the historical background of this punishment, scholars often referred to ancient Greek texts containing the verb anastauroun or anaskolopizein. The present paper suggests that conclusions drawn from these texts may be unsatisfactory -if not erroneous. This suggestion is based on the fact that the absolute majority of the texts share the same weakness, which disqualifies them in such a study. In order to create a firm textual basis for the study of crucifixion, other intra-and extra-textual features are needed. The result of the reading proposed by the present paper is that it significantly reduces the number of relevant texts (the hitherto studied) and takes some new (hitherto neglected) texts into consideration.

2011

A word of thanks goes also to the participants at the SBL and EABS conferences who have offered their suggestions and support, as well as to

1986

Jesus of Nazareth underwent Jewish and Roman trials, was flogged, and was sentenced to death by crucifixion. The scourging produced deep stripelike lacerations and appreciable blood loss, and it probably set the stage for hypovolemic shock, as evidenced by the fact that Jesus was too weakened to carry the crossbar (patibulum) to Golgotha. At the site of crucifixion, his wrists were nailed to the patibulum and, after the patibulum was lifted onto the upright post (stipes), his feet were nailed to the stipes. The major pathophysiologic effect of crucifixion was an interference with normal respirations. Accordingly death resulted primarily from hypovolemic shock and exhaustion asphyxia. Jesus' death was ensured by the thrust of a soldier's spear into his side. Modern medical interpretation of the historical evidence indicate that Jesus was dead when taken down from the cross.

Journal of the American Academy of Religion, 2022

Literary analysis of texts dealing with the experiences of tortured bodies faces numerous riddles. For example, the urge to be faithful to the victims' experience hits a wall because of language's inadequacy to express torment. Another riddle is the urgency to represent the tortured body outside the logic of torture embodied by the torturer. By incorporating some of Elaine Scarry's insights in The Body in Pain and paying close attention to the testimonies of those who have survived torture, this article argues that the crucifixion of Jesus in Mark 15 is a case of torture that expands beyond the crucifixion itself and bleeds into other literary topics such as discipleship and the temple.

2013

Jesus of Nazareth underwent Jewish and Roman trials, was flogged, and was sentenced to death by crucifixion. The scourging produced deep stripe-like lacerations and appreciable blood loss, and it probably set the stage for hypovolemic shock, as evidenced by the fact that Jesus was too weakened to carry the crossbar (patibulum) to Golgotha. At the site of crucifixion, his wrists were nailed to the patibulum and, after the patibulum was lifted onto the upright post (stipes), his feet were nailed to the stipes. The major pathophysiologic effect of crucifixion was an interference with normal respirations. Accordingly death resulted primarily from hypovolemic shock and exhaustion asphyxia. Jesus' death was ensured by the thrust of a soldier's spear into his side. Modern medical interpretation of the historical evidence indicate that Jesus was dead when taken down from the cross. (JAMA 1986;255:1455-1463)

2025

A revised edition of a paper published in 2023 of the same subject of study (Did Jesus Died on a Stake? 2023), with corrections and elaborations by the author. This short study explores the Greek word stauros and the practice of crucifixion in the 1st century, with a focus on its depiction in the New Testament Gospels and its historical and archaeological context. Crucifixion, described by ancient sources such as Josephus and Cicero as a brutal and humiliating form of execution, was a multifaceted practice without a single standardized form. The Greek word stauros, traditionally understood as an upright stake, evolved in meaning before the Greco-Roman period to encompass various structures used in crucifixion, including T-shaped and X-shaped crosses. The New Testament Gospels, while providing the most detailed ancient accounts of crucifixion, do not explicitly define the exact form of the stauros but offer clues such as the use of nails (helon), the positioning of the titulus, and the victim’s carrying of the patibulum (the horizontal crossbeam). Roman crucifixion emphasized prolonged suffering and public humiliation, often involving scourging and the carrying of the patibulum to the execution site, where it was affixed to a vertical post (crux). This paper argues against the narrow interpretation of stauros as solely an upright stake and highlights the diversity of crucifixion methods in antiquity. It also challenges modern Christian iconography by situating the crucifixion of Jesus within its broader historical and linguistic context, emphasizing that the Gospels reflect a complex and evolving practice rather than a fixed form. Through careful examination of ancient texts, archaeological findings, and linguistic analysis, this study contributes to a more nuanced understanding of crucifixion and its theological and cultural significance in early Christianity.

2019

The Swoon Theory, or as it is sometimes called the Apparent-Death Theory asserts, that Christ did not die on the cross, but swooned or fell unconscious and was revived after being placed in the tomb. How this was achieved is under great speculation, even among the swoon theorists themselves, but with the historicity of Jesus’ crucifixion all but settled, they must claim that “Jesus’ reappearance wasn’t a miraculous resurrection but merely a fortuitous resuscitation.” In this paper, I will focus on the physiological burden of the crucifixion on Christ’s body. I will appeal to historical, eye-witness accounts of the treatment of victims of crucifixions, modern medical examinations of the psychological and physiological effects of being crucified and examine the physical evidence that Christ was dead when he was removed from the cross.