First person narration in the modern Italian novel

References (242)

1. Cesare Pavese, La luna e i falb, ninth edition, (Nuovi Coralli, Turin, 1984).
2. Giorgio Bassani, II qiardino dei
3. Finzi-Contini, (Mondadori, Milan, 1976).
4. Italo Calvino, I nostri antenati, (Einandi, Turin, 1960).
5. Italo Calvino, II castello dei destini incrociati, (Einaudi, Turin, 1973), and Se una notte d'inverno un viagqiatore, (Einaudi, Turin, 1979).
6. Leonardo Sciascia, Todo modo, (Nuovi Coralli, Turin, 1976). Umberto Eco, II nome dell a rosa, (Bompiani, Milan, 1980). All references are to the editions cited above. References appear after quotations in text.
7. Catherine Belsey, Critical Practice, (London, 1980), p.7.
8. E. Benveniste, Probl&mes de linquistique qdndrale, p.254. References follow quotations in text. See also chapter 1, pp.36-42.
9. P. Lejeune, Le Pacte autobioqraphique, p.22.
10. R. Barthes, 'Proust et les noms' in Le deqr4 zero de 1'^criture, (Paris, 1953), pp.121-134.
11. R. Barthes, S/Z, (Paris, 1970), p.197.
12. C. Pavese, Dialoghi con Leuc6, (Turin, 1947).
13. D. Heiney, Three Italian Novelists, (Ann Arbor, 1968), p.146.
14. Luigi Perrotta, in Cesare Pavese e la sua opera (Naples, 1975) writes that 'bastardo', 'assume il significato di estraneo, di uomo che non sa piu donde derivi la sua nascita', (p.82).
15. D. Spender, Man Made Language, second edition, (London, 1985), p. 164.
16. J. Culler, The Pursuit of Signs, (London, 1981), p.33.
17. D. Fernandez, L'Echec de Pavese, (Paris, 1967), p.252.
18. D. Heiney, Three Italian Novelists, p.87. Fernandez in II romanzo italiano e la crisi dell a coscienza moderna, (Milan, 1960) interprets the theme of suicide in the work of Pavese thus: 'II suicidio...e 1'avvenimento che deve restituire 1'uomo a se stesso, metter fine alia vita, a questa perpetua Notes to Chapter Five
19. In Anna Dolfi, Le forme del sentimento, (Padua, 1981), pp.79- 91, (p.83).
20. Italo Calvino, I nostri antenati, p.353.
21. Rosemary Jackson, Fantasy: The Literature of Subversion, (London, 1981), p.3.
22. Ferdinando Camon, II mestiere di scrittore, (Milan, 1973), pp.181-201, (p.183).
23. For Calvino's own views on the relationship between literature and the world see his collection of essays, Una pietra sopra, (Turin, 1980) esp. 'II midollo del leone', 'II mare dell'oggettivita', 'La sfida al labirinto' and the later 'I livelli dell a realty in 1etteratura'. Written at different times they offer a useful insight into the development of Calvino's thought. See also Teresa de Lauretis, 'Narrative Discourse in Calvino: Praxis or Poiesis', PMLA, 90 (1975), 414-425.
24. Shlomith Rimmon-Kenan, Narrative Fiction: Contemporary Poetics, (London, 1983), p.5.
25. Italo Calvino, 'Cibernetica e fantasmi (Appunti sulla narrativa come processo combinatorio) in Una pietra sopra, pp.164-181.
26. For a discussion of the role of the various narrators in the Trilogy, see J.R. Woodhouse, Italo Calvino: A Reappraisal and an Appreciation of the Trilogy, (Hull, 1968), pp.58-70.
27. Both Woodhouse (pp.64-65) and de Lauretis (p.416) insist that Biagio, the narrator of II barone rampante, is still a child at the time of narration. Patently this is not the case.
28. See Gregory L. Lucente, 'An Interview with Italo Calvino', in Contemporary Literature, vol 26 no.3 (1984) pp.245-253. Here Calvino reiterates his views on the impossibility of 'objective' representation in literature.
29. M.M. Bakhtin in 'Discourse in the Novel", The Dialogic Imagination, edited by M. Holquist, (Texas, 1981) pp.259-422 gives an interesting account of the function of narrators defined as 'other'. See esp. p.313.
30. Italo Cat vino, Le cosmicomiche, (Turin, 1965). For a detailed account of the function of the narrator in these short stories see Jo Ann Cannon, Italo Calvino: Writer and Critic, (Ravenna, 1981) pp.49-64 and Contardo Calligaris, Italo Calvino, (Milan, 1973), pp.91-98. Latterly, Calvino has also alluded to the alleged anthropomorphism of these stories in his essay 'Visibility' in Lezioni americane: sei proposte per il prossimo millennio, (Milan, 1988) p.90.
31. Calligaris writes: 'la forma spezzata non 6 riproduizione dell'alienazione, ma coscienza di questa tutta tesa alia conquista di una nuova integrality, (p.36).
32. See Calvino's note to the Trilogy, pp.355-356.
33. Calvino, II sentiero dei nidi di raqno (Turin, 1964), p.15.
34. Linda Hutcheon, Narcissistic Narrative: The Metafictional Paradox, (London, 1984).
35. Cannon notes: 'II barone rampante occupies a pivotal position in the trilogy: while on the one hand, the novel thematizes the efficacy of literature, on the other hand, it begins to expose the unreality of literary language', (p.42).
36. See also Calvino, 'Cibenetica e fantasmi', for the writer's views on the relationship between language and the world, the said and the unsaid.
37. Calvino's effect here is obviously humorous but for a more disturbing account of similar phenomena in 'genuine' confessional writing see Giovanni Pozzi, 'II "parere" autobiografico di Veronica Giuliani', in Strumenti Critici, 2, no.54, (1987), 161-192.
38. For a discussion of the various techniques of 'mise en abyme' see Lucien Dallenbach, Le recit speculaire: essai sur la mise en abyme, (Paris, 1977).
39. See Calvino 'La penna in prima persona (Per i disegni di Saul Steinberg)' in Una pietra sopra pp.294-300 for the author's views on the sign in graphic art.
40. Richard Andrews, 'Italo Calvino' in Writers and Society in Contemporary Italy, edited by Michael Caesar and Peter Hainsworth, (Leamington Spa, 1984), pp.259-281, (p.266).
41. Michel Foucault, 'What is an author?' in Textual Strategies: Perspectives in Post-Structuralist Criticism, edited by Josud V. Harari, (Ithaca, 1979), pp.141-160.
42. For Calvino's comments on the self-referential nature of the romance see the introduction to his version of Orlando Furioso, (Turin, 1970) pp.IX-XXVI.
43. Patricia Waugh, Metafiction: The Theory and Practice of Self- Conscious Fiction, (London, 1984), p.130.
44. Robert Alter in Partial Magic: The Novel as a Self-Conscious Genre, (Berkeley, 1975) makes an interesting observation on the birth of the novel genre. He writes: 'the novel begins out of an erosion of belief in the authority of the written word and it begins with Cervantes. It fittingly takes as the initial target of its literary critique the first genre to have enjoyed popular success because of the printing press - the Renaissance chivalric romance' (3).
45. Roland Barthes, Le deqre zero de 1 'Pcriture, (Paris, 1953). Interestingly in his introduction to Fiabe italiane, (Turin, 1956) Calvino writes that these fables: 'sono, prese tutte insieme, nella loro sempre ripetuta e sempre varia casistica di vicende umane, una spiegazione generale dell a vita, nata in tempi remoti e serbata nel lento ruminio delle coscienze contadine fino a noi; 'un destino', (p.xii). For a discussion of the 'You' see Cesare Segre, 'Se una notte d'inverno uno scrittore sognasse un aleph di dieci colori', in Strumenti Critici, (1979), 177-214.
46. Gerard Genette, Nouveau discours du recit, p.92.
47. Oriana Fallaci , Lettera ad un bambino mai nato, (Milan, 1975) and Fulvio Tomizza, L'amicizia, (Milan, 1980). Both texts are structured round the call to the absent 'you' figure, a constant feature, although not always explicit, of the texts we have studied. See chapter 1, pp.36-38.
48. Patricia Waugh in Metafiction remarks on the feigned element of 'histoire': 'a "story" cannot exist without a teller. The apparent impersonality of histoire is always finally personal, finally discours.' (27)
49. Jonathan Culler, 'Apostrophe' in The Pursuit of Signs, (London, 1981), pp.135-154.
50. Similarly, Paul de Man in 'Autobiography as De-facement' argues that prosopopeia, the addressing of the absent or dead, constitutes the central rhetorical figure of autobiography. See esp. pp.925-926.
51. See Segre, pp.177-180.
52. Wolfgang Iser, The Implied Reader: Patterns of Communication in Prose Fiction from Bun.yan to Beckett, (Baltimore and London, 1974) and Umberto Eco, Lector in fabula: la cooperazione interpretativa nei testi narrativi, (Milan, 1979) esp. pp.50-66.
53. Hermes/Mercury as Calvino points out in Lezioni Americane is ' i 1 dio del la comunicazione e delle mediazioni'. He goes on:
54. 'Mercurio, con le ali ai piedi, leggero e aereo, abile e agile e adattabile e disinvolto, stabilisce le relazioni degli dei tra di loro e quelle tra gli d&i e gli uomini, tra le leggi universa!i e i casi individuali, tra le forze dell a natura e le forme dell a cultura, tra tutti gli oggetti del mondo e tra tutti i soggetti pensanti. Quale migliore patrono potrei scegliere per la mi a proposta di 1etteratura?' (50-51).
55. Barthes in 'From Work to Text' in Textual Strategies pp.73-81 compares the monistic 'work' to the plural 'text', writing that 'the text might well take as its motto the words of the man possessed by devils: "My name is legion, for we are many" (Mark 5:9)' (p.77). See also chapter 7, pp.298-302.
56. Stefario Tani , The Doomed Detective: The Contribution of the Detective Novel to Postmodern American and Italian Fiction (Carbondale and Edwardsville, 1983).
57. See Linda Hutcheon, Narcissistic Narrative, pp.31-32. For an interesting account of how writers of detective fiction view their own art see The Mystery Writers Handbook, edited by L. Treat, (Cincinnati, 1976).
58. For an account of the origins and the development of this idea see Deborah Cameron and Elizabeth Fraser, The Lust to Kill: A Feminist Investigation of Sexual Murder, (Cambridge, 1987).
59. Tzvetan Todorov, 'Typologie du roman policier', in Podtique de la Prose, (Paris, 1971), pp.55-65, (p.57).
60. See Tani esp. pp.4-6.
61. Tani perhaps underestimates the unconventional quality of certain of Christie's solutions. As well as the by now infamous Murder of Roger Ackro.yd, we might also cite Curtai ns: Poirot's Last Case, in which the detective engineers his own murder so that the culprit might be trapped.
62. Todorov, p.58.
63. Todorov, p.59.
64. For the use made of the detective genre in 'post-modern' narrative see Hutcheon and also Patricia Waugh, Metafiction. pp.82-84.
65. Tani, pp.52-76. Tani includes II nome dell a rosa in this category but as will become apparent our argument reverses Tani's hierarchy of subversion.
66. Tani, pp.76-112. Here Tani includes Todo modo which we go on to discuss in this chapter pp.292-308.
67. Tani, pp.113-147.
68. Patricia Waugh, Metafiction p.82.
69. Edgar Allan Roe, 'The Purloined Letter' in The Works of Edgar A. Poe, vol.1. (Edinburgh, 1874) pp.494-513 (p.497).
70. Poe, p.497.
71. Jacques Lacan, 'Le S^minaire sur "La Lettre volee", in Ecrits 1, (Paris, 1966), 19-75.
72. Lacan, p.43.
73. Umberto Eco, Postille a il nome del la rosa, (Milan, 1984). For Eco's views on the question of the narrator see pp.20-24.
74. Eco considers Adso's naivety to be a contributing factor to the popularity of the novel 'da parte di 1ettori non sofisticati'. Postilie, p.23.
75. See Hayden White, 'The value of narrativity in the
76. Sigmund Freud, 'Moses and Monotheism' in Pelican Freud Library, vol.13, pp.237-386, (p.369).
77. De Lauretis, p.24.
78. The significance of the eyes may be traced to the Oedipus legend where the hero blinds himself upon realising his crime. Spectacles may, therefore, be regarded as symbolising the phallus for they supplement the potency of the eye.
79. Franco Moretti, 'Clues' in Signs Taken for Wonders, translated by Susan Fischer, David Forgacs and David Miller, (London, 1983), p.148.
80. Teresa de Lauretis, Umberto Eco, (Florence, 1981), p.85.
81. Jorge's blindness may be said to symbolise his castration in relation to the Word. See above note 63.
82. Moretti, p.146. In this context, it may be argued that the criminal is not unlike the author of the 'open work'.
83. For a discussion of the role of disorder and order in the work of Eco, see David Robey, 'Umberto Eco', in Writers and Society in Contemporary italy, edited by Michael Caesar and Peter Hainsworth, (Leamington Spa, 1984), pp.63-88.
84. See Cadioli, pp.173-174.
85. Cadioli, p.173.
86. De Lauretis, 'Gaudy Rose: Eco and narcissism', pp.16-17.
87. In this case, the referent can only be another sigm'fier, so consequently we return to Eco's notion of unlimited semiosis.
88. This is also the case with the novel's title where the over- determination of the signifier leads to an excess hence dearth of signification. See Eco, Postilie, pp.7-8.
89. See Eco, Postilie, p.10. Eco's 'appendix' to his novel may, however, be read as a belated attempt to retain mastery over 'his' text.
90. De Lauretis, 'Gaudy Rose: Eco and Narcissism', p.19. The incorporation of other texts into II nome dell a rosa is quite different from the technique employed by Sciascia who consciously cites his sources. Eco's work is more an overt example of Kristeva's notion of ' intertextual ite'. See Julia Kristeva, 'The Bounded Text' in Desire in Language, edited by Leon S. Roudiez, (Oxford, 1980), pp.36-63, (pp.36-38).
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