Academia.eduAcademia.edu

Outline

Title
Abstract
Introduction
References
All Topics
Psychology
Applied Psychology

Developing Trauma-Responsive Approaches to Student Discipline

Profile image of Charol ShakeshaftCharol Shakeshaft

2021, Routledge eBooks

https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003128137
visibility

…

description

36 pages

link

1 file

Abstract

Building on comprehensive research conducted in US schools, this accessible volume offers an effective model of school leadership to develop and implement school-wide, trauma-responsive approaches to student discipline. Recognizing that challenging student behaviors are often rooted in early experiences of trauma, the volume builds on a model from the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA), to walk readers through the processes of realizing, recognizing, responding to, and resisting the impacts of trauma in school contexts. Research and interviews model an educational reform process and explain how a range of differentiated interventions including Positive Behavior Interventions and Supports (PBIS), social-emotional learning (SEL), restorative justice, and family engagement can be used to boost student resilience and pro-social behavior. Practical steps are supported by current theory, resources, and stories of implementation from superintendents, principals, and teachers. This text will benefit school leaders, teachers, and counselors with an interest in restorative student discipline, emotional and behavioral difficulties in young people, and PreK-12 education more broadly. Those interested in school psychology, trauma studies, and trauma counseling with children and adolescents will also benefit from the volume.

Related papers

Teachers Attitudes Regarding Adverse Childhood Experiences, Trauma-Informed Educational Practices, and Student Resiliency
Alyson Kohl

2021

The purpose of this convergent parallel design mixed methods case study was to determine how training on Adverse Childhood Experiences and Trauma-Informed Educational Practice affected the attitudes of teachers, in Shasta County's Enterprise Elementary School District (EESD), regarding students who had experienced Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACE). A further purpose of this study was to understand if teachers in EESD perceived training in ACE and Trauma-Informed Educational Practices (TIEP) was effective in changing their classroom practices to support the resiliency of students who had experienced ACEs. Methodology: The methods for this research included: an online survey, The Attitudes Regarding Trauma-Informed Care (ARTIC) Scale© by The Traumatic Stress Institute, distributed electronically to 140 teachers EESD Teachers and concurrent interviews of 9 volunteer EESD Teachers. The results were studied to gain an understanding of the effects of ACE trainings and TIEP on the attitudes and classroom practices of teachers and student resiliency. Findings: The teachers reported that ACE & TIEP trainings positively impacted their relationships with students, changed their classroom practices, improved student resiliency, and decreased negative behaviors. Conclusions: Teacher education in ACE and TIEP is beneficial to teachers. Teachers gain valuable perspectives regarding student behaviors and helped them gain valuable vi skills. Whole School approaches to TIEP lead to an increase in positive student outcomes and develop student resiliency. Recommendations: It is recommended that a replication of this study be conducted on a larger scale with multiple rural districts, however, not conducted during a pandemic. Conduct a mixed methods comparative study of communities, comparing communities that use a trauma-informed communities' approach. Research school districts which have developed the 'Whole School' approach including training and supporting parents/caregivers, teachers, and other staff to include not only TIEP for the students but includes Trauma-Informed Supervision for staff and teachers and trauma-informed parenting for the parents. vii TABLE OF CONTENTS

View PDFchevron_right
Evaluation of a Trauma-Informed School Intervention with Girls in a Residential Facility School: Student Perceptions of School Environment
Shantel Crosby, Angelique G Day

In response to the high nationwide prevalence of psychological trauma among court-involved youth who have been exposed to abuse and neglect and the associated far-reaching adverse consequences, there are calls to develop a trauma-informed workforce across the various systems (child welfare, juvenile justice, mental health and education) designed to serve these traumatized young persons. We describe a pilot test of a modified version of the Heart of Teaching and Learning (HTL) curriculum, an intervention designed to increase trauma-informed practices in education settings. This program was implemented in a public charter school that exclusively serves court-involved youth placed in residential treatment. The intervention was associated with decreases in trauma symptoms experienced by youth. Since student perceptions of teachers were high both before and after implementation of the curriculum, no statistically significant changes were observed. The article concludes with a discussion on the ways in which the curriculum can be used to help prepare a national education workforce capable of implementing trauma-informed evidence-based practices in school settings.

View PDFchevron_right
Unlocking the Door to Learning: Trauma-Informed Classrooms & Transformational Schools
Maura McInerney

Childhood trauma can have a direct, immediate, and potentially overwhelming impact on the ability of a child to learn. Yet, this issue has largely been ignored by our education system. This issue brief discusses how educators can begin to understand the role of trauma, its effect on children and learning, and how educators can change methods of interacting and responding to children impacted by trauma. By adopting a trauma-informed approach, schools undertake a paradigm shift at the staff and organizational level to recognize, understand and address the learning needs of children impacted by trauma. This requires a commitment to shaping school culture, practices, and policies to be sensitive to the needs of traumatized learners. This effort positively impacts schools and changes the lifetrajectory of vulnerable students. The first step is to understand who experiences trauma and why, and how it impacts learning. "Trauma-informed" approaches are not new-they have been implemented in many fields including the medical profession and our judicial system. The lessons learned from these evidence-based approaches can be directly applied to classrooms and schools. At the heart of these approaches is the belief that students' actions are a direct result of their experiences, and when students act out or disengage, the question we should ask is not "what's wrong with you," but rather "what happened to you?" 1 By being sensitive to students' past and current experiences with trauma, educators can break the cycle of trauma, prevent re-traumatization, and engage a child in learning and finding success in school. Defining Trauma-What happened to this child? Childhood trauma has been conceptualized as a response to a negative external event or series of events which render a child "temporarily helpless" and surpass the child's "ordinary coping and defensive operations." 2 A wide range of experiences can result in childhood trauma, and a child's response to these potentially traumatizing events will vary depending on the characteristics of the child (e.g., age, stage of development, personality, intelligence and prior history of trauma) environment (e.g., school and family supports), and experience (e.g., relationship to perpetrator). 3 The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV-TR) defines traumatic events as those in which an individual experiences, witnesses, or is confronted with actual or threatened death or serious injury, or threatened physical integrity of self or others. 4 Importantly, the event need not be violent and need not be directed at the child who experiences trauma. One well-known study describes traumatic experiences in childhood as Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs), which may include physical, psychological, or sexual abuse; violence against one's mother; or living with household members who are mentally ill, suicidal, substance abusers, or were ever incarcerated. This study linked ACEs to many common adult medical and psychological problems. 5 In response to a traumatic event, a person may feel intense fear, horror, or helplessness, and in response, a child may display disorganized or agitated behavior. 6 Who Experiences Trauma? Children from all races and socioeconomic backgrounds experience and are impacted by trauma. Research suggests that between half and two-thirds of all school-aged children experience trauma 7 as they are exposed to one or more adverse childhood experience that can be trauma-inducing. 8 Trauma can come in many forms. There are obvious examples of trauma. For example, in 2011, there were 4,566 reports of abuse or neglect in Philadelphia, with 2.1 substantiated cases of abuse or neglect per 1,000 children. 9 However, there are also other hidden examples of exposure to trauma. Here are some statistical examples:  Among 769 students sampled in the LA Unified School District, the average number of violent events experienced in the previous year was 2.8, and the average number of witnessed events was 5.9. In this context, 76% of surveyed students experienced or witnessed violence involving a gun or knife. 10 In another study of this cohort by Flannery et al., between 56% and 87% of adolescents had witnessed someone being physically assaulted at school during the past year. 11  In one representative sample of children in western North Carolina, 68% of 16-year-olds had experienced trauma and 37% had experienced two or more traumatic events. More specifically: o 25% had been exposed to violence.  15% had experienced the violent death of a sibling or peer.  7% had experienced physical abuse by a relative. o 11% had experienced sexual trauma in the form of sexual abuse, rape, or coercion.

View PDFchevron_right
Applying a Trauma Informed School Systems Approach: Examples from School Community-Academic Partnerships
Pia Escudero, Alejandra Acuña

Objectives: Schools can play an important role in addressing the effects of traumatic stress on students by providing prevention, early intervention, and intensive treatment for children exposed to trauma. This article aims to describe key domains for implementing trauma-informed practices in schools. Design: The Substance Abuse and Mental Health Administration (SAMHSA) has identified trauma-informed domains and principles for use across systems of care. This article applies these domains to schools and presents a model for a Trauma-Informed School System that highlights broad macro level factors, school-wide components, and tiered supports. Community partners from one school district apply this framework through case vignettes. Results: Case 1 describes the macro level components of this framework and the leveraging of school policies and financing to sustain trauma-informed practices in a public health model. Case 2 illustrates a school founded on trauma-informed principles and practices, and its promotion of a safe school environment through restorative practices. Case 3 discusses the role of school leadership in engaging and empowering families, communities, and school staff to address neighborhood and school violence. Conclusions: This article concludes with recommendations for dissemination of trauma-informed practices across schools at all stages of readiness. We identify three main areas for facilitating the use of this framework: 1) assessment of school staff knowledge and awareness of trauma; 2) assessment of school and/or district’s current implementation of trauma-informed principles and practices; 3) development and use of technology-assisted tools for broad dissemination of practices, data and evaluation, and workforce training of clinical and non-clinical staff.

View PDFchevron_right
School Discipline and Social Work Practice: Application of Research and Theory to Intervention
sandra m sheppard

Children & Schools, 2006

Research has identified a relationship between school disciplinary actions and poor academic and psychosocial functioning of students subjected to them. The ways in which school discipline is a direct contributor to students' academic and psychosocial difficulty needs to be further established empirically. Several theories, based in existing research and theory in sociology of education and educational psychology, have been proposed to explain the school discipline-student dysfunction relationship. They generally suggest three pathways: disciplinary actions may contribute to students' psychological problems; student misbehavior may be encouraged through ineffective and unintentionally paradoxical learning experiences; and disciplinary practices may damage students' relationship with school. School social workers and others working with children who have been disciplined at school can use these research findings and theories as an assessment framework to guide their interventions. The awareness of the iatrogenic potential of school discipline and informed assessment can support a range of evidence-based alternatives to school discipline. KEY WORDS: assessment; children; discipline; schools; school social work Although voluminous research has proven them faulty and ineffective at best and damaging at worst, disciplinary policies and practices in U.S. schools have remained virtually unchanged since the advent of public schooling in the late 18th century (Finkelstein,1989;. Schools commonly used methods such as codes of conduct, suspension, corporal punishment, and teachers' management of students' behaviors inside the classroom to maintain safe and orderly environments that are conducive to effective teaching and learning.Teachers, however, often must balance the challenges of working in schools that may be lacking resources but have many children with great needs, and sometimes, serious psychosocial difficulties/Teachers need to maintain safe and learningappropriate classroom environments, and some disciplinary methods are indispensable to accomplishing this task.

View PDFchevron_right
Supporting adolescent well-being at school: Integrating transformative social and emotional learning and trauma-informed education
Jacqueline Maloney

Social and Emotional Learning: Research, Practice, and Policy, 2024

There is an urgent need to support the social and emotional well-being of adolescents with experiences of adversity and trauma. Adolescence is a critical period of development for promoting social and emotional competencies, which can prevent poor mental health and problematic substance use and promote thriving during challenging teenage years and beyond. Both transformative social and emotional learning (TSEL) and traumainformed programs for schools (TIPS) have been identified as promising practices for supporting social and emotional well-being among young people with experiences of adversity. We propose a pragmatic theory of action for schools for implementing and evaluating initiatives that integrate TSEL and TIPS made up of three iterative components: awareness, assessment, and action. The TSEL + TIPS Theory of Action is illustrated by a case study of a cross-sectoral collaboration of government, schools, researchers, healthcare, and adolescents to implement TSEL and TIPS initiatives in British Columbia, Canada. The case study provides evidence for the feasibility of TSEL + TIPS Theory of Action and may serve as an example for other regions as experiences of adversity and poor mental health continue to rise among adolescents globally.

View PDFchevron_right
Trauma and Early Adolescent Development: Case Examples from a Trauma-Informed Public Health Middle School Program
Christine Mayor

Children & Schools, 2017

Middle-school-age children are faced with a variety of developmental tasks, including the beginning phases of individuation from the family, building peer groups, social and emotional transitions, and cognitive shifts associated with the maturation process. This article summarizes how traumatic events impair and complicate these developmental tasks, which can lead to disruptive behaviors in the school setting. Following the call by Walkley and Cox for more attention to be given to trauma-informed schools, this article provides detailed information about the Animating Learning by Integrating and Validating Experience program: a school-based, trauma-informed intervention for middle school students. This public health model uses psychoeducation, cognitive differentiation, and brief stress reduction counseling sessions to facilitate socioemotional development and academic progress. Case examples from the authors' clinical work in the New Haven, Connecticut, urban public school system are provided.

View PDFchevron_right
Trauma-Informed Practices in Schools Across Two Decades: An Interdisciplinary Review of Research
Shantel Crosby

Review of Research in Education, 2019

Attention to childhood trauma and the need for trauma-informed care has contributed to the emerging discourse in schools related to teaching practices, school climate, and the delivery of trauma-related in-service and preservice teacher education. However, though trauma-informed systems of care include schools, empirical work informing trauma-informed teaching and teacher education that is reflected back to those audiences is less established. This interdisciplinary overview and synthesis of literature examined interventions used in schools to determine the dominant framework used for promoting and practicing trauma-informed care in schools and the effectiveness of school-based supports for trauma-affected youth to identify implications for changing teaching practice. While multiple disciplines conduct research using different methodologies examining trauma-informed practices in schools, educators are underexamined in this work. Additionally, education researchers began engaging in ...

View PDFchevron_right
Responding to Students Affected by Trauma: Collaboration Across Public Systems
Gretchen Cusick, Gene Griffin, Cheryl Smithgall

Family Court Review, 2013

View PDFchevron_right
Effects of trauma-informed approaches in schools: A systematic review
Anne Farina, Michael S. Kelly, Brandy R Maynard

Campbell Systematic Reviews

1 | PLAIN LANGUAGE SUMMARY 1.1 | The review in brief Despite growing support and increased rate of which trauma-informed approaches are being promoted and implemented in schools, evidence to support this approach is lacking. 1.2 | What is this review about? Exposure to different types of trauma have been associated with varying types and complexity of adverse outcomes, including adverse effects on cognitive functioning, attention, memory, academic performance, and school-related behaviors. Given the growing research on trauma and increased knowledge about the prevalence, consequences and costs associated with trauma, there have been increased efforts at the local, state and federal levels to make systems "trauma-informed" (Lang, Campbell, & Vanerploeg, 2015). While the intent of creating trauma-informed approaches in schools is a noble one, relatively little is known about the benefits, costs, and how trauma-informed approaches are being defined and evaluated (Berliner & Kolko, 2016). Adopting a trauma-informed approach in a complex system such as a school building or district is a time consuming and potentially costly endeavor and thus it is important to assess the effects of this approach to inform policy and practice. This aim of this review was to assess trauma-informed approaches in schools on trauma symptoms/mental health, academic performance, behavior, and socioemotional functioning. Trauma-informed approaches include programs, organizations, or systems that realize the impact of trauma, recognize the symptoms of trauma, respond by integrating knowledge about trauma policies and practices, and seeks to reduce retraumatization. At least two of the three key elements of a trauma-informed approach must have been present: Workforce development, trauma-focused services, and organizational environment and practices, which differ from trauma-specific interventions designed to treat or otherwise address the impact/symptoms of trauma and facilitate healing. What is the aim of this review? This Campbell systematic review sought to examine the effects trauma-informed schools on trauma symptoms/ mental health, academic performance, behavior, and socioemotional functioning. Although we conducted a comprehensive search to find studies testing trauma-informed approaches in schools, no studies met the inclusion criteria.

View PDFchevron_right

References (213)

  1. 1 Percentage of Students Suspended One or More Times in 2015-2016 (Civil Rights Data Collection, 2020)
  2. 2 Percentage of Black Male Students Suspended in 2015- 2016 (Civil Rights Data Collection, 2020)
  3. 3 Percentage of Black Males with Disabilities Suspended in 2015-2016 (Civil Rights Data Collection, 2020)
  4. 4 Disproportionality of Black Students Suspended in Virginia, 2016-17 (Woolard, Salas, & Deane, 2018)
  5. 5 United States School-to-Prison Pipeline (US Department of Education, 2014)
  6. 2 Potential Impact of ACEs on Areas of the Brain (Heim & Binder, 2012; Krugers et al., 2017; McClelland et al., 2011; Teicher et al., 2016)
  7. Ginsburg's Seven Cs of Resilience (Ginsburg, 2018)
  8. 1 Discipline Reform Model (Kotter, 2012; Missouri Department of Mental Health and Partners, 2014; Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, 2014)
  9. 2 Discipline Reform Model in circles (Kotter, 2012; Missouri Department of Mental Health and Partners, 2014; Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, 2014)
  10. 1 Discipline Reform Model: REALIZE (Kotter, 2012; Missouri Department of Mental Health and Partners, 2014; Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, 2014)
  11. 2 Hierarchy of the Development of Students' Skills (A. Sampson-Jackson, personal communication, 2018)
  12. 1 Discipline Reform Model: RECOGNIZE Source: (Kotter, 2012; Missouri Department of Mental Health and Partners, 2014; Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, 2014)
  13. 2 Maslow's Hierachy of School Needs Source: (Guditas, 2013)
  14. 3 Brain states Source: (Bailey, 2018; Payne, 2018; Siegel, 2010; Wood, 2018)
  15. 4 Behaviours Associated with Hyper-Aroused & Hypo- Aroused Children Source: (Losen, Hodson, Keith, Morrison, & Belway, 2015)
  16. 6 Possible Functions of Behavior Source: (McIntosh & Goodman, 2016)
  17. 1 Discipline Reform Model: RESPOND (Kotter, 2012; Missouri Department of Mental Health and Partners, 2014; Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, 2014)
  18. 2 The Seven Powers for Conscious Adults (Bailey, 2018a)
  19. Conscious Discipline Skills (Bailey, 2018b)
  20. 4 The Social Discipline Window (Wachtel, 2009)
  21. 5 Five Abilities of Equity Literacy (Gorski, 2014)
  22. Dan Siegel's Hand Model (Siegel, 2012)
  23. Multi-Tiered Systems of Supports (McIntosh & Goodman, 2016) 6.
  24. 9 Focus and Recovery (FAR) Room Questions for the student… (personal communication, J. Linthicum, 2018)
  25. 1 Discipline Reform Model: RESIST (Kotter, 2012; Missouri Department of Mental Health and Partners, 2014; Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, 2014)
  26. Virginia Tiered Systems of Supports (VTSS) Implementation Logic (Virginia Tiered Systems of Supports, 2020)
  27. References Kotter International. (2019). Kotter. Retrieved from https://www.kotterinc.com/8-st eps-process-for-leading-change/.
  28. Merriam Webster. (2020). Retrieved from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dic tionary/Discipline.
  29. Walker, T. (2016). Why are 19 states still allowing corporal punishment in schools? NEA Today. Retrieved from https://www.nea.org/advocating-for-change/new -from-nea/Why-are-19-states-still-allowing-corporal-punishment-schools.
  30. American Civil Liberties Union. (2020). School-to-prison pipeline. Retrieved from https://www.aclu.org/issues/juvenile-justice/school-prison-pipeline/school-priso n-pipeline?redirect=feature/school-prison-pipeline.
  31. American Public Health Association. (2018, March). Chronic stress and the risk of high school dropout (Issue Brief, March 1, 2018). Washington, DC.
  32. American Psychological Association. (2012). Building your resilience. Retrieved from https://www.apa.org/topics/resilience.
  33. Bergland, C. (2013, January 22). Cortisol: Why the "stress hormone" is public enemy no. 1. Psychology Today. Retrieved from https://www.psychologytod ay.com/us/blog/the-athletes-way/201301/cortisol-why-the-stress-hormone -is-public-enemy-no-1.
  34. Bomer, R., Dworin, J. E., May, L., & Semingson, P. (2008). Miseducating teachers about the poor: A critical analysis of Ruby Payne's claims about poverty. Teachers College Record, 110(12), 2497-2531. Retrieved from http://sites.nd .edu/ pover ty -ca p /fil es /20 12 /07 /TCRe cord_ Payne _Crit ique. pdf.
  35. Bradshaw, C. P., Mitchell, M. M., O'Brennan, L. M., & Leaf, P. J. (2010). Multilevel exploration of factors contributing to the overrepresentation of black students in office disciplinary referrals. Journal of Educational Psychology, 102(2), 508- 520. doi: doi.org/10.1037/a0018450.
  36. Cartledge, G., & Kourea, L. (2008). Culturally responsive classrooms for culturally diverse students with and at risk for disabilities. Exceptional Children, 74(3), 351-371. doi: 10.1177/001440290807400305.
  37. Center for Community Change. (2020). The relationship between poverty and mass incarceration: How mass incarceration contributes to poverty in the United States. Retrieved from https :/ /ww w.mas slega lserv ices. org /s ystem /file s /lib rary/ The _R elati onshi p _bet ween_ Pover ty _an d _Mas s _Inc arcer ation .pdf. Civil Rights Data Collection. (2020). School/district/state comparison report. [Data set]. Retrieved from https :/ /oc rdata .ed .g ov /Da taAna lysis Tools /Data SetBu ilder ?Report=1. The Commonwealth Institute for Fiscal Analysis. (2017, October). Unequal opportunities: Fewer resources, worse outcomes for students in schools with concentrated poverty (Issue Brief, October, 26, 2017). Richmond, VA: Chris Duncombe.
  38. Evans, G. W., & Kim, P. (2013, March). Childhood poverty, chronic stress, self- regulation, and coping. Childhood Development Perspectives, 7(1). 43-48. doi: 10.1111/cdep.12013.
  39. Evans Cuellar, A., & Markowitz, S. (2015, August). School suspension and the school-to-prison pipeline. International Review of Law and Economics, 43, 98- 106. doi: 10.1016/j.irle.2015.06.001.
  40. Exclusionary Discipline. (2018). National clearinghouse on supportive school discipline. Retrieved from https://supportiveschooldiscipline.org/learn/refer ence-guides/exclusionary-discipline.
  41. Felitti, V., Anda, R., Nordenberg, D., Williamson, D., Spitz, A., Edwards, V., … Marks, J. (1998). Relationship to childhood abuse and household dysfunction to many of the leading causes of death in adults: The adverse childhood experiences (ACE) study. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 14(4), 245-258. doi: 10.1016/S0749-3797(98)00017-8.
  42. Ferguson, R. F. (2003). Teachers' perceptions and expectations and the black-white test score gap. Urban Education, 38(4). 460-507. doi: 10.1177/0042085903038004006.
  43. Ferris, S. (2015, April 10). Virginia tops nation in sending students to cops, courts: Where does your state rank? Center for Public Integrity. Retrieved from https ://www.publicintegrity.org/2015/04/10/17089/virginia-tops-nation-sending-st udents-cops-courts-where-does-your-state-rank.
  44. Good, T. L., & Nichols, S. L. (2001) Expectancy effects in the classroom: A special focus on improving the reading performance of minority students in first- grade classrooms. Educational Psychologist, 36(2), 113-126. doi: 10.1207/ S15326985EP3602_6\.
  45. Gorski, P. C. (2018). Reaching and teaching students in poverty: Strategies for erasing the opportunity gap, 2nd ed. New York: Teachers' College Press.
  46. Gregory, A., & Mosely, P. M. (2010). The discipline gap: Teachers' views on the over-representation of African American students in the discipline system. Equity & Excellence in Education, 37(1), 18-30. doi: 10.1080/10665680490429280.
  47. Gregory, A., & Weinstein, R. S. (2008). The discipline gap and African Americans: Defiance or cooperation in the high school classroom. Journal of School Psychology, 46(4), 455-475. doi: 10.1016/j.jsp.2007.09.001.
  48. Hughes, M. (2018). Poverty as an adverse childhood experience. North Carolina Medical Journal, 79(2), 124-126. doi: 10.18043/ncm.79.2.124. Kids Count Data Center. (2020). Children in single-parent families by race in the United States. The Annie E. Casey Foundation. Retrieved from https :/ /da tacen ter .kidscount.org/data/tables/107-children-in-single-parent-families-by#detailed/1/ any/false/573,869,36,868,867/10,11,9,12,1,185,13/432,431.
  49. Klein, R. (2017, April 14). Why aren't there more black teachers? Racial discrimination still plays a role. Huffington Post. Retrieved from https:// ww w.huffingt onpos t.com/entr y /tea cher-racis m-black -di scrimination _us _58ebdcc2e4b0c89f912083dc.
  50. Langberg, J., & Ciolfi, A. (2016). Suspended progress (Research Report May 2016). Retrieved from https://www.justice4all.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/Suspe nded-Progress-Report.pdf. References 7
  51. Lhamon, C. E., Timmons-Goodson, P., Abegbile, D. P., Herriot, G. L., Kirsanow, P. N., Kladney, D., Narasaki, K., & Yaki, M. (2019, July). Beyond suspensions: Examining school discipline policies and connections to the school-to-prison pipeline for students of color with disabilities. The United States Commission on Civil Rights. Retrieved from https://www.usccr.gov/pubs/2019/07-23-Beyond- Suspensions.pdf.
  52. Loveless, T. (2017). How well are American students learning? Houston, TX: Brown Foundation, Inc. Retrieved from https :/ /ww w.bro oking s .edu /wp -c onten t / uploads/2017/03/2017-brown-center-report-on-american-education.pdf.
  53. McLoyd, V. C. (1998). Socioeconomic disadvantage and child development. American Psychologist, 53(2), 185-204. https :/ /do i .org /10 .1 037 /0 003 -0 66X .5 3 .2.185 National Child Traumatic Stress Network, Schools Committee. (2017). Creating, supporting, and sustaining trauma-informed schools: A system framework. Los Angeles, CA: National Center for Child Traumatic Stress. National Education Association. (2018). Why cultural competence? To help educators close achievement gaps. Retrieved from http://www.nea.org/home /39783.htm.
  54. Payne, R. (2005). A framework for understanding poverty, 4th ed. Highlands, TX: Aha! Process, Inc.
  55. Persyn, M. K. (2016). Agents of progress: Schools and child traumatic stress. Poverty & Race Research Action Council. Retrieved from Ethnic NewsWatch Retrieved from http://proxy.library.vcu.edu/login?url=https://searchhttp://-pr oques t -com .prox y.lib rary. vcu .e du /do cview /1861 25692 6 ?acc ounti d =147 80.
  56. Santiago, C., Raviv, T., & Jaycox, L. (2018). Universal and schoolwide interventions for trauma (p. 37-52). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
  57. Simmons-Reed, E. A., & Cartledge, G. (2014). School discipline disproportionality: Culturally competent interventions for African American males. Interdisciplinary Journal of Teaching and Learning, 4(2), 95-109. doi: 10.1177/001440290807400305.
  58. Skiba, R. J., Michael, R. S., Nardo, A. C., & Peterson, R. (2002). The color of discipline: Sources of racial and gender disproportionality in school punishment. The Urban Review, 34(4), 317-342. doi: 10.1023/A:1021320817372.
  59. Skiba, R. J., Poloni-Staudinger, L., Simmons, A. B., Feggins-Azziz, L. R., & Chung, C. (2005). Unproven links: Can poverty explain ethnic disproportionality in special education. The Journal of Special Education, 39(3), 130-144. Retrieved from https :/ /fi les .e ric .e d .gov /full text/ EJ722 287 .p df.
  60. Sleeter, C. E. (1995). Foreword. In B. B. Swadener & S. Lubeck (Eds.), Children and families 'at Promise': Deconstructing the discourse of risk. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.
  61. Soto-Vigil Koon, D. (2013). Exclusionary discipline: An issue brief and review of the literature. The Chief Justice Earl Warren Institute on Law and Social Policy, 39(1), 317-342. doi: 10.3102/001389X09357621.
  62. Staats, C. (2016). Understanding implicit bias: What educators should know. American Educator, 39(4), 29-34. Retrieved from https :/ /fi les .e ric .e d .gov /full text/EJ1086492.pdf.
  63. Steinberg, M., & Lacoe, J. (2017). What do we know about school discipline reform? Assessing the alternatives to suspensions and expulsions. Education Next, 17(1), 44-52. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. (2014). Guiding principles of trauma-informed care. 22(2). Retrieved from https://www.samhsa .g ov /sa mhsaN ewsLe tter/ Volum e _22_ Numbe r _2 /t rauma _tip/ guidi ng _pr incip les .html. Toldson, I. (2018, July 24). Deconstructing the achievement gap to move from equity to excellence. In L. Walker (Chair), Virginia is for all learners: Education equity summer institute. Symposium conducted at the meeting of the Virginia Department of Education in Richmond, VA.
  64. US Census Bureau. (2018). Poverty rate and percentage point change by type of family: Families and people. Retrieved from https :/ /ww w.cen sus .g ov /co ntent / dam/ Censu s /lib rary/ visua lizat ions/ 2019/ demo/ p60 -2 66 /Fi gure9 .pdf. US Department of Health and Human Services, U.S. Department of Education. (2014). Policy statement on expulsion and suspension policies in early childhood settings (HHS Publication No. 187050). Retrieved from http://www.docslides .com/danika-pritchard/u-s-department-of-health-and-human-servicesu-s-depart ment. US Department of Justice, US Department of Education. (2014). Dear colleague letter: Nondiscriminatory administration of school discipline (January 8, 2014). Retrieved from https :/ /ww w2 .ed .gov/ about /offi ces /l ist /o cr /le tters /coll eague -201401-title-vi.html.
  65. Valencia, R. R. (1997). The evolution of deficit thinking: Educational thought and practice. London: Falmer Press.
  66. Virginia Department of Education Office of Nutrition Programs. (2016). School year 2015-2016 National School Lunch Program (NSLP) free and reduced price eligibility report: Division level. Retrieved from http://www.doe.virginia.gov/. suppo rt/nu triti on/st atist ics/f ree_r educe d_eli gibil ity/2 015-2 016/d ivisi ons/f rpe _d iv _re port_ sy201 5 -16. pdf.
  67. Welsh, R. O., & Little, S. (2018, October). The school discipline dilemma: A comprehensive review of disparities and alternative approaches. Review of Educational Research, 88(5), 752-794. doi: 10.3102/0034654318791582.
  68. Woolard, A. (2017). Suspended progress 2017: An update on the state of exclusionary discipline in Virginia's public schools (Research Reports October 2017). Retrieved From https :/ /ww w.jus tice4 all .o rg /wp -cont ent /u pload s /201 6 /04/Suspended-Progress-2017.pdf.
  69. Woolard, A., Salas, M., & Deane, R. (2018). Suspended progress, 2018: An update on the state of exclusionary discipline and alternative education in Virginia's public schools (Research Report October 2018). Retrieved from https://www.jus tice4 all .o rg /wp conte nt /up loads /2018 /10 /F ullSu spend edPro gress 2018. pdf.
  70. Andersen, S. (2016). Commentary on the special issue on the adolescent brain: Adolescence, trajectories, and the importance of prevention. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 70, 329-333. doi: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.07.012.
  71. Bartlett, J. D., Smith, S., & Bringewatt, E. (2017). Helping young children who have experienced trauma: Policies and strategies for early care and education. References 9
  72. Bethesda, MD: Child Trends. Retrieved March 19, 2019 from https :/ /ww w.chi ldtre nds .o rg /wp -cont ent /u pload s /201 7 /04/ 2017-19 ECE Traum a .pdf . Bath, K., Manzano-Nieves, G., & Goodwill, H. (2016). Hormones and behavior: Early life stress accelerates behavioral and neural maturation of the hippocampus in male mice. Hormones and Behavior, 82, 64-71. doi: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2016.04.010.
  73. Bergland, C. (2013, January). Cortisol: Why the "stress hormone" is public enemy no. 1. Psychology Today. Retrieved from https://www.psychologytod ay.com/us/blog/the-athletes-way/201301/cortisol-why-the-stress-hormone -is-public-enemy-no-1.
  74. Bolton, J., Molet, J., Regev, L., Chen, Y., Rismanchi, N., Haddad, E., … Baram, T. (2017). Anhedonia following early-life adversity involves aberrant interaction of reward and anxiety circuits and is reversed by partial silencing of amygdala corticotropin-releasing hormone gene. Society of Biological Psychiatry, 83, 137-147. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2017.08.023.
  75. Briere, J. N., & Elliott, D. M. (1994). Immediate and long-term impacts of child sexual abuse. Future of Children, (4)2, 54-69. http://www.jstor.org/stable /1602523.
  76. Brown, N., Brown, S., Briggs, R., German, M., Belamarich, P., & Oyeku, S. (2016). Associations between adverse childhood experiences and ADHD diagnosis and severity. Academic Pediatrics, 17(4), 349-355. doi: 10.1016/j.acap.2016.12.009.
  77. Burns, S., Szyszkowicz, J., Luheshi, G., & Lutz, P. (2018). Plasticity of the epigenome during early-life stress. Seminars in Cell & Developmental Biology, 77, 115-132. doi: 10.1016/j.semcdb.2017.09.033.
  78. Cook, A, Sinazzola, J, Ford, J, Lanktree, C., Blaustein, M., Cloitre, M., … van der Kolk, B. (2005, May). Complex trauma in children and adolescents. Psychiatric Annals, 35(5), 390-398.
  79. Durlak, J. A., Weissberg, R. P., Dymnicki, A. B., Taylor, R. D., & Schellinger, K. B. (2011). The impact of enhancing students' social and emotional learning: A meta-analysis of school-based universal interventions. Child Development, 82(1), 405-432. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01564.x.
  80. Dym Bartlett, J., & Steber, K. (2019). How to implement trauma-informed care to build resilience to childhood trauma. Bethesda, MD: ChildTrends. Retrieved from https://www.childtrends.org/publications/how-to-implement-trauma-infor med-care-to-build-resilience-to-childhood-trauma.
  81. Fareri, D., & Tottenham, N. (2016). Effects of early life stress on amygdala and striatal development. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 19, 233-247.
  82. Felitti, V., Anda, R., Nordenberg, D., Williamson, D., Spitz, A., Edwards, V., … Marks, J. (1998). Relationship to childhood abuse and household dysfunction to many of the leading causes of death in adults: The adverse childhood experiences (ACE) study. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 14 (4), 245-258. doi: 10.1016/S0749-3797(98)00017-8.
  83. Franck, L. K., & Chapman, M. (2018). Trauma and resilience basics. Presentation sponsored by the Trauma Informed Community Network, Richmond, VA.
  84. Ginsburg, K. (2018). The 7C's: The essential building blocks of resilience. Fostering Resilience. Retrieved from http://www.fosteringresilience.com/7cs/ php. Ginsburg, K., & Jablow, M. (2020). Building resilience in children and teens: Giving kids roots and wings, 4th ed. Itasca, IL: American Academy of Pediatrics.
  85. Graham, L. (2013). Bouncing back: Rewiring your brain for maximum resilience and well-being. Novato, CA: New World Library.
  86. Greeson, J. K. P., Briggs, E. C., Kisiel, C. L., Layne, C. M., Ake III, G. S., Ko, S. J… Fairbank, J. A. (2011). Complex trauma and mental health in children and adolescents placed in foster care: Findings from the National Child Traumatic Stress Network. Child Welfare, 90(6), 91-108.
  87. Heim, C., & Binder, E. (2012). Current research trends in early life stress and depression: Review of human studies on sensitive periods, gene-environment interactions, and epigenetics. Experimental Neurology, 233. 102-111. doi: 10.1016/j.espneurol.2011.10.032.
  88. Krugers, H., Arp, J., Xiong, H., Kanatsou, S., Lesuis, S., Korosi, A., … Lucassen, P. (2017). Early life adversity: Lasting consequences for emotional learning. Neurobiology of Stress, 6, 14-21. doi: 10.1016/j.ynstr.2016.11.005.
  89. Luthar, S. S., Cicchetti, D., & Becker, B. (2000). The construct of resilience: A critical evaluation and guidelines for future work. Child Development, 71(3), 543-562.
  90. Lutz, P., & Turecki, G. (2014). DNA methylation and childhood maltreatment: From animal models to human studies. Neuroscience, 264, 142-156. doi: 10.1016/j. neuroscience.2013.07.069.
  91. McClelland, S., Korosi, A., Cope, J., Ivy, A., & Baram, T. (2011). Emerging roles of epigenetic mechanisms in the enduring effects of early-life stress and experience on learning and memory. Neurobiology of Learning and Memory, 96(1), 79-88. doi: 10.1016/j.nlm.2011.02.008. National Scientific Council on the Developing Child. (2014). Excessive stress disrupts the architecture of the developing Brain. Working paper no. 3. Updated edition. Retrieved March 19, 2019 from http://www.developingchild.harvard .edu.
  92. Rossouw, J. (2020). Neuroplasticity -Why you should care about your BDNF. Retrieved from https://home.hellodriven.com/neuroplasticity-bdnf-resilience .html.
  93. Seghete, K., DePrince, A., & Banich, M. (2018). Preliminary evidence: Association between initial age of exposure to childhood abuse and cognitive control. International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies, 3, 437-447. doi: 10.1002/ jts.22290.
  94. Sporleder, J., & Forbes, H. T. (2016). The trauma-informed school: A step-by-step implementation guide for administrators and school personnel. Boulder, CO: Beyond Consequences Institute, LLC.
  95. Stevens, J. (2012). Aces too high news. ACEs Connection Network. Retrieved from http://acesttohigh.com/about/.
  96. Teicher, M., Samson, J., Anderson, C., & Ohashi, K. (2016). The effects of childhood maltreatment on brain structure, function and connectivity. Nature Reviews. Neuroscience, 17, 652-666. doi: 10.1038/nrn.2016.111.
  97. Woolard, A. (2017). Suspended progress 2017: An update on the state of exclusionary discipline in Virginia's public schools (Research Reports October References 11
  98. World Health Organization. (2020). Violence against children. Retrieved from https ://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/violence-against-children#:~:text =Globally%2C%20it%20is%20estimated%20that,the%20past%20year%20(1).
  99. Zannas, A., & West, A. (2014). Epigenetics and the regulation of stress vulnerability and resilience. Neuroscience, 264, 157-170. doi: 10.1016/j. neuroscience.2013.12.003.
  100. Barber, M., & Mourshed, M. (2017). How the world's best performing school systems come out top. (Research Report, September 2, 2017). Retrieved from https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/social-sector/our-insights/how-the-worl ds-best-performing-school-systems-come-out-on-top.
  101. Cole, S. F., O'Brien, J. G., Gadd, M. G., Ristuccia, J., Wallace, D. L., & Gregory, M. (2009). Helping traumatized children learn: Supportive school environments for children traumatized by family violence. Boston, MA: Massachusetts Advocates for Children.
  102. D'Orio, W. (2018, January 11). Is school-discipline reform moving too fast? The Atlantic. Retrieved from https://www.theatlantic.com/education/archive/2018 /01/is-school-discipline-reform-moving-too-fast/550196/.
  103. Gilbreath, A. (2018). 2018 Legislative session: Dismantling the school-to-prison pipeline. Voices for Virginia's Children. Retrieved from https://vakids.org/o ur-news/blog/2018-legislative-session-dismantling-the-school-to-prison-pipe line
  104. Gorski, P. C. (2018). Reaching and teaching students in poverty: Strategies for erasing the opportunity gap, 2nd ed. New York: Teachers' College Press.
  105. Kamenetz, A. (2017). School suspensions have plunged: We don't know yet if that's good news. NPREd. Retrieved from https://www.npr.org/ secti ons/e d/201 7/03/ 23/52 10709 24/sc hool-suspe nsion s-hav e-plu nged -we-don-t-yet-know-if-that-s-good-news
  106. Kotter, J. P. (2012). Leading change. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press.
  107. Lonetree, A. (2013, May 23). St. Paul school suspensions drop 30%: Administrators make clear an intent to keep students in the classroom. Star Tribune. Retrieved from http://www.startribune.com/st-paul-school-suspensions-drop-30/208760501/.
  108. Mattingly, J. (2018). Northam signs student discipline reform bill as Virginia schools still disproportionately suspend black students. Richmond Times Dispatch. Retrieved from https://www.richmond.com/news/virginia/government-politics /general-assembly/northam-signs-student-discipline-reform-bills-as-virginia-s chool s -sti ll /ar ticle _ee15 6e85-43b8-59ce-be13-e7678 18e9b 91 .ht ml Missouri Department of Mental Health and Partners (2014). Missouri model: A developmental framework for trauma informed approaches. Retrieved from https://dmh.mo.gov/trauma/MO%20Model%20Working%20Document%20fe bruary%202015. pdf. National Association for College Admission Counseling and the American School Counselor Association. (2016). State by state student to counselor ratio report: 10-year trends. Retrieved from https://www.schoolcounselor.org/asca/media/as ca/Publications/ratioreport.pdf. National Child Traumatic Stress Network, Schools Committee. (2017). Creating, supporting, and sustaining trauma-informed schools: A system framework. Los Angeles, CA: National Center for Child Traumatic Stress. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. (2014). Guiding principles of trauma-informed care. 22(2). Retrieved from https://www.samhsa .g ov /sa mhsaN ewsLe tter/ Volum e _22_ Numbe r _2 /t rauma _tip/ guidi ng _pr incip les .html. United Federation of Teachers. (2016). UFT responds to the DOE's ban on suspensions in the early grades. [Press Release]. Retrieved from http://www.uft. org/press-releases/uft-responds-does-ban-suspensions-students-early-grades.
  109. Wall, P. (2016, April 20). As New York City's suspension rate falls, some educators see a parallel dip in discipline. Chalkbeat. Retrieved from https://www.chalkbea t.org/posts/ny/2016/04/20/as-new-york-citys-suspension-rate-falls-some-educ ators-see-a-parallel-dip-in-discipline/.
  110. Wolpow, R., Johnson, M. M., Hertel, R., & Kincaid, S. O. (2009). The heart of teaching and learning: Compassion, resiliency, and academic success. Olympia, WA: Washington State Office of Superintendent of Public Instruction Compassionate Schools.
  111. Wood, L. (2018, November). Putting resiliency understanding to work for youth (and you). In S. Dion (Chair), Strengthening connections: Fostering resiliency and supporting the development of safe and healthy students from kindergarten through college. Symposium conducted at the meeting of the Virginia Department of Criminal Justice Services, Richmond, VA.
  112. Woolard, A. (2017). Suspended progress 2017: An update on the state of exclusionary discipline in Virginia's public schools (Research Reports October 2017). Retrieved From https :/ /ww w.jus tice4 all .o rg /wp -cont ent /u pload s /201 6 /04/Suspended-Progress-2017.pdf.
  113. Woolard, A., Salas, M., & Deane, R. (2018). Suspended progress, 2018: An update on the state of exclusionary discipline and alternative education in Virginia's public schools (Research Reports October 2018). Retrieved from https://www .jus tice4 all .o rg /wp conte nt /up loads /2018 /10 /F ullSu spend edPro gress 2018. pdf.
  114. Zimmerman, A. (2016, October 31). New York City school suspensions continue to plummet, but stark disparities exist. Chalkbeat. Retrieved from https://www.cha lkbeat.org/posts/ny/2016/10/31/new-york-city-school-suspensions-continue-to -plummet-but-stark-disparities-persist/.
  115. Edmunds, C., & Heymann, A. (2017, July 15). With student suicides on the rise in Loudoun County, parents say school leaders lack compassion. Loudoun Times Mirror. Retrieved from https://www.loudountimes.com/news/with-student-sui cides-on-the-rise-in-loudoun-county-parents/articlea0b33e2f-1cf1-5ccc-8ee6- 4238d7401eac.html.
  116. Gorski, P. C. (2018). Reaching and teaching students in poverty: Strategies for erasing the opportunity gap, 2nd ed. New York: Teachers' College Press.
  117. Greater Richmond Stop Child Abuse Now (GR-SCAN). (2019). The Circle Preschool Program. Retrieved from http://grscan.com/programs/the-circle-pr eschool-program/ References 13
  118. Kotter, J. P. (2012). Leading change. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press.
  119. Lumpkin, A. (2008). Three keys to success for principals (and their teachers). Kappa Delta Pi Record, 45(1), 22-25.
  120. Missouri Department of Mental Health and Partners. (2014). Missouri model: A developmental framework for trauma informed approaches. Retrieved from https://dmh.mo.gov/trauma/MO%20Model%20Working%20Document%20febr uary%202015.pdf.
  121. Ryan Bartel Foundation (2019). Our story. Retrieved from https :/ /ww w.rya nbart elfoundation.org/our-story.
  122. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. (2014). Guiding principles of trauma-informed care. 22(2). Retrieved from https://www.samhsa .g ov /sa mhsaN ewsLe tter/ Volum e _22_ Numbe r _2 /t rauma _tip/ guidi ng _pr incip les .html.
  123. Tuttle, C. (2017, June 2). Curbing teen suicide in Loudoun County. The Woodgrove Outlander. Retrieved from https://www.thewoodgroveoutlander.com/features /2017/06/02/curbing-teen-suicide-loudoun-county/.
  124. Bailey, B. (2018). The conscious discipline brain state model: A multidisciplinary approach based on three distinct brain-body states in adults and children that drive behavior. Conscious Discipline. Retrieved from https://consciousdiscipline .com/methodology/brain-state-model/.
  125. Bell, H., Limberg, D., & Robinson, E. M. III (2013, April 28). Recognizing trauma in the classroom: A practical guide for educators. Childhood Education, 89(3), 139-145. doi: 10.1080/00094056.2013.792629. Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning. (2018). Retrieved from https://casel.org/.
  126. Community Resilience Initiative. (2018). Our team: Teri Barila. Community Resilience Initiative. Retrieved from https://criresilient.org/about-us/our-te am/.
  127. Danzinger, S., Levav, J., & Avnaim-Pesso, L. (2011). Extraneous factors in judicial decisions. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 108. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1018033108
  128. Forbes, H. T. (2012). Help for billy: A beyond consequences approach to helping challenging children in the classroom. Boulder, CO: Beyond Consequences Institute, LLC.
  129. Ginsburg, K. (2018). The 7C's: The essential building blocks of resilience. Fostering Resilience. Retrieved from http://www.fosteringresilience.com/7cs/php.
  130. Gregory, A., & Weinstein, R. S. (2008). The discipline gap and African Americans: Defiance or cooperation in the high school classroom. Journal of School Psychology, 46(4), 455-475. doi: 10.1016/j.jsp.2007.09.001.
  131. Guditas, S. (2013, February 2013). Maslow's hierarchy of school needs [Web log post]. Retrieved from http://sguditus.blogspot.com/2013/02/maslows-hierarchy- of-school-needs-steve.html.
  132. Harris, R., & Petaccio, K. (2017). From chaos to calm. Georgia Association for Positive Support Conference. 19. https://digitalcommons.georgiasouthern.edu/ gapbs/2017/2017/19.
  133. Kotter, J. P. (2012). Leading change. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press. Kotter International (2019). Kotter. https://www.kotterinc.com/8-steps-process-for -leading-change/
  134. Lee, H., Griffin, R. M., & Keels, M. (2018, January). Maintaining educator well- being. Practice Brief #4. TREP Project. Retrieved from http: / /doc s .wix stati c .com /ugd/ fc6e9 a _7e8 63bbc dfff4 e65b6 86f39 2f 45c 4c8d. pdf.
  135. Losen, D., Hodson, C., Keith, M. A., Morrison, K., & Belway, S. (2015). Are we closing the discipline gap? (The Center for Civil Rights Remedies Report, February 23, 2015). Retrieved from https :/ /ww w.civ ilrig htspr oject .ucla .edu/ resources/projects/center-for-civil-rights-remedies/school-to-prison-folder/fede ral-reports/are-we-closing-the-school-discipline-gap/?searchterm=are%20we %20closing%20the%20discipline%20gap.
  136. McIntosh, K. (2017). Strategies for neutralizing implicit bias in school discipline. Retrieved from http: / /pbi sconf erenc e .org /file s /201 7 /04/ McInt osh -I mplic it -Bi as - 2017-4-24.pdf.
  137. McIntosh, K., & Goodman, S. (2016). Integrated multi-tiered systems of support: Blending RTI and PBIS. New York: Guilford Press.
  138. Missouri Department of Mental Health and Partners. (2014). Missouri model: A developmental framework for trauma informed approaches. Retrieved from https://dmh.mo.gov/trauma/.
  139. National Child Traumatic Stress Network. (2008, October). Child toolkit for educators. Los Angeles, CA: National Center for Child Traumatic Stress. Retrieved from https :/ /wm ich .e du /si tes /d efaul t /fil es /at tachm ents/ u57 /2 013 /c hild-trauma-toolkit.pdfMO%20Model%20Working%20Document%20february %202015.pdf. National Child Traumatic Stress Network, Schools Committee. (2017). Creating, supporting, and sustaining trauma-informed schools: A system framework. Los Angeles, CA: National Center for Child Traumatic Stress. National Child Traumatic Stress Network. (2018). Who we are. Los Angeles, CA: National Center for Child Traumatic Stress. Retrieved from https :/ /ww w.nct sn .or g/about-us/who-we-are
  140. Payne, R. K. (2018). Emotional poverty in all demographics. Highlands, TX: Aha! Process, Inc.
  141. Siegel, D. J. (2010). Mindsight: The new science of personal transformation. New York: Bantam Books. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. (2014, July). SAMHSA's concept of trauma and guidance for a trauma-informed approach. Retrieved from https :/ /st ore .s amhsa .gov/ syste m /fil es /sm a14 -4 884 .p df. US Department of the Navy, US Marine Corps. (2010, December). Combat and Operational Stress Control (NTTP 1-15M, MCRP 6-11C). Retrieved from https ://www.med.navy.mil/sites/nmcphc/Documents/health-promotion-wellness/p sychological-emotional-wellbeing/combat-operational-stress-control-nttp-115m .pdf.
  142. White, C. C. (2017, February). Putting resilience and resilience surveys under the microscope. Aces Too High News. Retrieved from https://acestoohigh.com/2017 /0 2 /05/ _tras hed -4 /. References 15
  143. Wood, L. (2018, November). Putting resiliency understanding to work for youth (and you). In S. Dion (Chair), Strengthening connections: Fostering resiliency and supporting the development of safe and healthy students from kindergarten through college. Symposium conducted at the meeting of the Virginia Department of Criminal Justice Services, Richmond, VA.
  144. Algozzine, B., Barrett, S., Eber, L., George, H., Horner, R., Lewis, T., … & Sugai, G. (2014). School-wide PBIS tiered fidelity inventory. OSEP Technical Assistance Center on Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports. Retrieved from www .pbis.org.
  145. Anderson, E., Blitz, L., & Saastamoinen, M. (2015). Exploring a school-university model for professional development with classroom staff: Teaching trauma- informed approaches. School Community Journal, 25(2), 113-134.
  146. Ashdown, D., & Bernard, M. (2012). Can explicit instruction in social and emotional learning skills benefit the social-emotional development, well-being, and academic achievement of young children? Early Childhood Education Journal, 39(6), 397-405. doi: 10.1007/s10643-011-0481-x.
  147. Bailey, B. (2018a). Seven powers for conscious adults. Conscious Discipline. Retrieved from https://consciousdiscipline.com/methodology/seven-powers/.
  148. Bailey, B. (2018b). Seven skills of discipline. Conscious Discipline. Retrieved from https://consciousdiscipline.com/methodology/seven-skills/10.1016/j.biopsych .2017.08.023.
  149. Bradshaw, C. P., Mitchell, M. M., O'Brennan, L. M., & Leaf, P. J. (2010). Multilevel exploration of factors contributing to the overrepresentation of black students in office disciplinary referrals. Journal of Educational Psychology, 102(2), 508- 520. doi: doi.org/10.1037/a0018450.
  150. Byrd, C. M. (2016, September). Does culturally relevant teaching work? An examination from student perspectives. SAGE Open, 6(3), 1-10. doi: 10.1177/2158244016660744.
  151. Center for Restorative Process. (2018). Retrieved from http://www.centerforresto rativeprocess.com/restorative-justice-and-restorative-practices.html. Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning. (2018). Retrieved from https://casel.org/.
  152. Davidson, R. J. (2018). Meet Richard Davidson, Founder of the Center for Healthy Minds [Video]. Retrieved from https://www.richardjdavidson.com/.
  153. Delisio, E. R. (2007). Evaluating in-school suspension programs. Education World. Retrieved from https :/ /ww w.edu catio nworl d .com /a _is sues/ chat/ chat0 82 .sh tml.
  154. Dickinson, M. C., & Miller, T. L. (2006, Fall). Issues regarding in-school suspensions and high school students with disabilities. American Secondary Education, 35(1), 72-83.
  155. Downey, J. A. (2008). Recommendations for fostering educational resilience in the classroom. Preventing School Failure: Alternative Education for Children and Youth (53)1, 56-64. https://doi .org /10 .3200 /PSFL .53 .1 .56 -64.
  156. Edwards, L. (2016). Homogeneity and inequality: School discipline inequality and the role of racial composition. Social Forces, 95(1), 55-75. doi: 10.1093/sf/ sow038.
  157. Fairbanks, S., Sugai, G., Guardino, D., & Lathrop, M. (2007). Response to intervention: Examining classroom behavior support in second grade. Exceptional Children, 73(3), 288-310.
  158. Forbes, H. T. (2012). Help for Billy: A beyond consequences approach to helping challenging children in the classroom. Boulder, CO: Beyond Consequences Institute, LLC.
  159. Gonzalez, S. (2012, May 4). In school-suspension: A better alternative or waste of time? State Impact. Retrieved from https :/ /st ateim pact.npr.o rg /fl orida /2012 /05 /0
  160. /flo ridas -in -s chool -susp ensio n -pol icy -k eeps-stu de nts -o ut -of -clas s/.
  161. Gootman, M. E. (1998). Effective in-house suspension. Educational Leadership, 56(1), 39-41.
  162. Gorski, P. (2014, April 10). Imagining equity literacy. Teaching Tolerance. Retrieved from https :/ /ww w.tol eranc e .org /maga zine/ imagi ning-equit y -lit eracy.
  163. Hochman, S., & Worner, W. (1987). In-school suspension and group counseling: Helping the at-risk student. NASSP Bulletin 65(441), 93-96. doi: 10.1177/019263658707150124.
  164. In-school suspension: A learning tool. (2018). Education World. Retrieved from https :/ /ww w.edu catio nworl d .com /a _ad min /a dmin/ admin 329 .s html.
  165. Joyce, B. R., & Showers, B. (2002). Student achievement through staff development, 3rd ed. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.
  166. Kotter, J. P. (2012). Leading change. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press.
  167. Lewis, T. (2013). Myths, misunderstandings, and milestones in implementing school-wide positive behavior support. Presentation, Columbia, MO.
  168. Mayworm, A., & Sharkey, J. (2014). Ethical considerations in a three-tiered approach to school discipline policy and practice. Psychology in the Schools, 51(7), 693-704. doi: 10.1002/pits.21782.
  169. McIntosh, K. (2017). Strategies for neutralizing implicit bias in school discipline. Retrieved from http: / /pbi sconf erenc e .org /file s /201 7 /04/ McInt osh -I mplic it -Bi as - 2017-4-24.pdf.
  170. McIntosh, K., & Goodman, S. (2016). Integrated multi-tiered systems of support: Blending RTI and PBIS. New York: Guilford Press.
  171. Meyers, D. (2018, June). Home is where the relationship begins: Home visitation as a family engagement strategy [PowerPoint slides]. Trauma-Informed Schools Conference, St. Charles, MO.
  172. Minch, D. (2019). Engaging families in VTSS: Moving forward to meaningful partnerships. Tampa, FL: University of South Florida.
  173. Missouri Department of Mental Health and Partners. (2014). Missouri model: A developmental framework for trauma informed approaches. Retrieved from https://dmh.mo.gov/trauma/MO%20Model%20Working%20Document%20febr uary%202015.pdf.
  174. Morris, R. C., & Howard, A. C. (2003). Designing an effective in-school suspension program. Clearing House, 76(3), 156-159. doi: 10.1080/00098650309601994.
  175. Morrow, G. (1987). The compassionate school: A practical guide to educating abused and traumatized children. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. National Child Traumatic Stress Network, Schools Committee. (2017). Creating, supporting, and sustaining trauma-informed schools: A system framework. Los Angeles, CA: National Center for Child Traumatic Stress. References 17
  176. National Education Association. (2018). Why cultural competence? To help educators close achievement gaps. Retrieved from http://www.nea.org/home /39783.htm.
  177. Nixon, J., & Keels, M. (2018, April). Improving school-wide culture and climate through social and emotional learning. Practice Brief #6. TREP Project. Retrieved from http: / /doc s .wix stati c .com /ugd/ fc6e9 a _6fb 14ab4 dfbc4 a92a9 fa440fecbc2233.pdf.
  178. Payne, R. K. (2018). Emotional poverty in all demographics. Highlands, TX: Aha! Process, Inc.
  179. Payne, A. A., & Welch, K. (2015). Restorative justice in schools: The influence of race on restorative discipline. Youth & Society, 47(4), 539-564. doi: 10.1177/0044118X12473125.
  180. Peterson, R., Miller, C., & Skiba, R. (2004). A framework for planning safe and responsive schools. Beyond Behavior, 13(3), 12-16.
  181. Pierson, R. (2013, May 3). Rita Pierson: Every kid needs a champion [Video file]. Retrieved from https :/ /ww w.you tube. com /w atch? v =SFn M THhK dkw.
  182. Purtle, J. (2018). Systematic review of evaluations of trauma-informed organizational-interventions that include staff trainings. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 21(4), 1-16. doi: 10.1177/1524838018791304.
  183. Romero, V. E., Robertson, R., & Warner, A. (2018). Building resilience in students impacted by adverse childhood experiences: A whole-staff approach. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.
  184. Rosen, A. (2018). Four reasons to start the day with morning meetings. Aperture Education. Retrieved from https://apertureed.com/sel-integration/4-reasons-s tart-school-day-morning-meetings/.
  185. Ryan, J. B., Katsiyannis, A., Peterson, R., & Chmelar, R. (2007). IDEA 2004 and disciplining students with disabilities. NASSP Bulletin, 91(2), 130-140. doi: 10.1177/0192636507302309
  186. Sheets,J.(1996).Designinganeffectivein-schoolsuspensionprogramtochangestudent behavior. NASSP Bulletin, 80(579), 86-90. doi: 10.1177/019263659608057915.
  187. Short, P. M. (1988). Planning and developing in-school suspension programs. Monographs in Education, 9. Retrieved from https :/ /fi les .e ric .e d .gov /full text/ ED303875.pdf.
  188. Siegel, D. (2012). Dr. Dan Siegel presenting a hand model of the brain. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gm9CIJ74Oxw.
  189. Steinberg, M., & Lacoe, J. (2017). What do we know about school discipline reform? Assessing the alternatives to suspensions and expulsions. Education Next, 17(1), 44-52.
  190. Stewart, K. (2016). Can restorative practices help to reduce disparities in school discipline data?: A review of the literature. Multicultural Perspectives, 18(2), 97-102. doi: 10.1080/15210960.2016.1159099. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. (2014). Guiding principles of trauma-informed care. 22(2). Retrieved from https://www.samhsa .g ov /sa mhsaN ewsLe tter/ Volum e _22_ Numbe r _2 /t rauma _tip/ guidi ng _pr incip les .html.
  191. Sullivan, D., & Tifft, L. (2001). Restorative justice: Healing the foundations of our everyday lives. Monsey, NY: Willow Tree Press Inc.
  192. Sullivan, J. S. (1989). Elements of a successful in-school suspension program. NASSP Bulletin, 73(516), 32-38. doi: 10.1177/019263658907351607.
  193. Taylor, R. D., Oberle, E., Durlak, J. A., & Weissberg, R. P. (2017). Promoting positive youth development through school-based social and emotional learning interventions: A meta-analysis of follow-up effects. Child Development, 88(4), 1156-1171. doi: 10.1111/cdev.12864.
  194. US Department of Education. (2018). Every student succeeds act. Retrieved from https://www.ed.gov/essa?src=rn.
  195. Vanderslice, R. (1999). Developing effective in-school suspension programs. Delta Kappa Gamma Bulletin, 65(4), 33-38.
  196. Vavrus, F., & Cole, K. M. (2002, June). I didn't do nothin': The discursive construction of school suspension. The Urban Review, 34(2), 87-111. doi: 10.1023/A:1015375215801.
  197. Virginia Department of Education. (2020). Virginia's 5Cs. Retrieved on October 9, 2020 from http://www.virginiaisforlearners.virginia.gov/media-library/.
  198. Wachtel, T. (2009). My three decades of using restorative practices with delinquent and at-risk youth: Theory, practice and research outcomes. Bethlem, PA: International Institute for Restorative Practices.
  199. Welsh, R. O., & Little, S. (2018, October). The school discipline dilemma: A comprehensive review of disparities and alternative approaches. Review of Educational Research, 88(5), 752-794. doi: 10.3102/0034654318791582.
  200. Yang, C., Bear, G., & May, H. (2018). Multilevel associations between school-wide social-emotional learning approach and student engagement across elementary, middle, and high schools. School Psychology Review, 47(1), 45-61. doi: 10.17105/SPR-2017-0003.V47-1.
  201. Zhang, D., Katsiyannis, A., & Herbst, M. (2004). Disciplinary exclusions in special education: A 4-year analysis. Behavioral Disorders, 29(4), 337-347. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.proxy.library.vcu.edu/stable/23889526.
  202. Collins, J. (2001). Good to great: Why some companies make the leap…and others don't. New York: HarperCollins Publishers, Inc.
  203. Henrico County Public Schools. (2016, May). Job description: Coordinator of behavior supports. Richmond, VA.
  204. Henrico County Public Schools. (2018). Code of student conduct, 2018-2019. Retrieved from http://henricoschools.us/pdf/Schools/CodeOfStudentConduct.pdf. Henrico County Public Schools. (2019). Foundational learning and family engagement. Retrieved from https://henricoschools.us/foundational-learning-fa mily-engagement/.
  205. Kotter, J. P. (2012). Leading change. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press. Loudoun County Public Schools (LCPS) (2018, October 5). Positive behavioral interventions and supports. Retrieved from https://www.lcps.org/Page/213 References 19
  206. Missouri Department of Mental Health and Partners. (2014). Missouri model: A developmental framework for trauma informed approaches. Retrieved from https://dmh.mo.gov/trauma/MO%20Model%20Working%20Document%20 february%202015.pdf.
  207. Romero, V. E., Robertson, R., & Warner, A. (2018). Building resilience in students impacted by adverse childhood experiences: A whole-staff approach. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.
  208. Saimre, M. (2018). Tier 1 forum. Presented by Virginia Tiered System of Supports, Williamsburg, VA.
  209. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. (2014). Guiding principles of trauma-informed care. 22(2). Retrieved from https://www.samhsa .g ov /sa mhsaN ewsLe tter/ Volum e _22_ Numbe r _2 /t rauma _tip/ guidi ng _pr incip les .html University at Buffalo. (2019). What is trauma-informed care? Retrieved from http: / /soc ialwo rk .bu ffalo .edu/ socia l -res earch /inst itute s -cen ters/ insti tute-on -tr auma- and-trauma-informed-care/what-is-trauma-informed-care.html.
  210. Virginia Tiered Systems of Supports. (2020). Retrieved from https://vtss -ric .org/.
  211. Ingram, J. (2020, July 26). Has child abuse surged under COVID-19? Despite alarming stories from ERs, there's no answer. NBC News. Retrieved from https:/ /www.nbcnews.com/health/kids-health/has-child-abuse-surged-under-covid-19 -despite-alarming-stories-n1234713.
  212. Koplewics, H. S. (2020, June 1). Talking to kids about George Floyd. Child Mind Institute. Retrieved from https://childmind.org/blog/talking-to-kids-about-g eorge -floy d/.
  213. Slay, B. (2020, May 20). COVID-19 will intensify education inequities for Black students. Diverse: Issues in Higher Education. Retrieved from https://diverse education.com/article/177796/.

Related papers

Helping Students Heal: Observations of Trauma-Informed Practices in the Schools
Lisa Phifer

School Mental Health

From the city streets of New Haven, Connecticut, the rural mountains of Appalachia, and the heart of San Francisco, students across the nation are coming to school with traumatic histories that are greatly impacting their school performance. Schools are recognizing the impact of trauma and beginning to adopt trauma-informed practices. When school systems approach students through a trauma lens, they are better equipped to provide the educational and social-emotional supports necessary to help students reach their potential. The following commentary reviews the implementation efforts of three different trauma-informed school programs and their use of the multitiered interventions to address the differing needs of trauma-exposed students. Implications for future directions are addressed, including the need for support for more intensive educator professional development.

View PDFchevron_right
Healthy Environments and Response to Trauma in Schools (HEARTS): A Whole-School, Multi-level, Prevention and Intervention Program for Creating Trauma-Informed, Safe and Supportive Schools
Talia Leibovitz

The University of California, San Francisco’s Healthy Environments and Response to Trauma in Schools (HEARTS) Program promotes school success for trauma-impacted students through a whole-school approach utilizing the response to intervention multi-tiered framework. Tier 1 involves school-wide universal supports to change school cultures into learning environments that are more safe, supportive and trauma-informed. Tier 2 involves capacity building with school staff to facilitate the incorporation of a trauma-informed lens into the development of supports for at-risk students, school-wide concerns and disciplinary procedures. Tier 3 involves intensive interventions for students suffering from the impact of trauma. Program evaluation questions were: (1) Was there an increase in school personnel’s knowledge about addressing trauma and in their use of trauma-sensitive practices? (2) Was there an improvement in students’ school engagement? (3) Was there a decrease in behavioral problems associated with loss of students’ instructional time due to disciplinary measures taken? (4) Was there a decrease in trauma-related symptoms in students who received HEARTS therapy? Results indicate preliminary support for the effectiveness of the HEARTS program for each of the evaluation questions examined, suggesting that a whole-school, multi-tiered approach providing support at the student, school personnel and system levels can help mitigate the effects of trauma and chronic stress. Key areas for further studies include (a) an examination of data across more HEARTS schools that includes comparison control schools and (b) disaggregating disciplinary data by race and ethnicity to determine whether disproportionality in the meting out of disciplinary actions is reduced.

View PDFchevron_right
Trauma effects on students and solutions to remedy behaviour and school achievement
International Journal of Learning and Teaching

International Journal of Learning and Teaching

The purpose of this study was to analyse the effects of implementing trauma-informed practices, such as restorative circles and mindfulness techniques, on academic performance and student behaviour. A mixed methods study was initiated to implement restorative practices and mindfulness techniques in an urban fifth grade class. Research was conducted to determine its effects on building students' resiliencies and lessening patterns of distress. Teacher self-reflection journals, Daily Behaviour Assessment tools and positive verbiage were logged and utilised over a 6-weeks period. The class consisted of 26 students, with 49% of the students receiving tier II and III instruction and 15% of the students receiving social work services. An enhancement in academic performance, student behaviour and classroom climate was observed by the researchers. It is recommended that the researcher continues monitoring the effects of incorporating restorative and mindfulness practices within the classroom for the remainder of the school year, in addition to initiating school-wide training.

View PDFchevron_right
Student Perspectives on how Trauma Experiences Manifest in the Classroom: Engaging Court-Involved Youth in the Development of a Trauma-Informed Teaching Curriculum
Angelique G Day

Children and Youth Services Review, 2014

This study explores how the lived experience of court-involved youth impacts learning and school culture, and solicits youth voice in creating a trauma-informed intervention to improve student educational well-being. Thirty-nine female students, with ages 14 to 18, participated in focus groups to describe externalizing behaviors that they have both witnessed and personally struggled with in the classroom, discuss the perceived causes of these behaviors, and their suggestions for improving school culture to reduce these behavior manifestations in the classroom. Two major categories of behavior were identified, including: “anger emotions” and “aggressive actions.” Students described the causes of behavior as, “environmental influences” and “triggers.” The most common solutions that students gave to reduce externalizing behaviors in school settings included “encouraging respect of others” and “improving behavior management to enhance student engagement.” An additional solution suggested by the students included the “monarch room as support.” The Monarch Room is an alternative intervention to traditional suspension/expulsion polices that provides students in need of specific emotional support an opportunity to redirect/de-escalate externalizing behavior or mood in the school setting. This study highlights the need for trauma-informed approaches in school settings, and the importance of the inclusion of a youth voice in developing and implementing these intervention models.

View PDFchevron_right
Brief report: Moving prevention into schools: The impact of a trauma-informed school-based intervention
Philip Leaf

Journal of adolescence, 2015

Adolescents in disadvantaged communities have high rates of exposure to stress and trauma, which can negatively impact emotion regulation and executive functioning, increasing likelihood of school problems. This pilot study evaluated RAP Club, a 12-session school-based trauma-informed group intervention co-facilitated by a mental health counselor and young adult community member that utilizes evidence-based cognitive-behavioral and mindfulness strategies. Seventh and eighth graders at two urban public schools serving low-income communities were assigned to receive RAP Club (n = 29) or regular school programming (n = 20). RAP Club improved teacher-rated emotion regulation, social and academic competence, classroom behavior, and discipline. Higher program dose predicted improvements in several teacher-rated outcomes. Student self-report outcomes, however, did not vary by study group or dose. Even students with low baseline depression showed improvement in teacher-rated outcomes follow...

View PDFchevron_right

Related topics

  • Psychology
  • Psychological Intervention
  • Psychological Resilience
    • 580 California St., Suite 400
    San Francisco, CA, 94104
    © 2025 Academia. All rights reserved