Coarsely resolved topography along protein folding pathways

Biochemistry, 1998

A single-disulfide variant of bovine pancreatic trypsin inhibitor (BPTI), [14-38] Abu , is a partially folded ensemble which includes two, and in one case three, conformations that interconvert slowly enough to exhibit separate cross-peaks in the amide region of homonuclear and heteronuclear NMR spectra. Each conformation is itself composed of many subconformations in rapid equilibrium. Partially folded BPTI undergoes local motions that are slow, noncooperative, independent fluctuations of short segments within the chain. Cooperative global unfolding of the ensemble is also observed. Heteronuclear NMR has been used to measure interconversion rate constants of partially folded conformational substates; the rate constants differ for each residue and vary over an order of magnitude. For local fluctuation, the forward rate constants for amide protons of the antiparallel-sheet are significantly smaller than the rest of the molecule, consistent with other indications that this is the most stable part of the partially folded protein. The reverse rate constants also vary; they are the highest for Ala 27 in the turn between the strands in the sheet and for Phe 33 in the antiparallel-sheet. Global unfolding interconversion rate constants vary over a 3-fold range, consistent with previously observed deviations from two-state behavior. Fast backbone dynamics, from T 1 , T 2 , and NOE relaxation parameters, are obtained for the slowly interchanging conformations in the partially folded ensemble. Clear differences are observed between the two conformations; one is more flexible and less compact than the other. In the more flexible and disordered partially folded conformation, intermediate exchange is detected for some backbone amides, namely, those in the central-sheet and the turn. These same sheet and turn residues are more ordered in the globally denatured ensemble as well. Our results suggest that the turn initiates formation of a partially folded ensemble in which the slow-exchange core is the most stable region and in which segmental fluctuations reflect multiple nuclei for folding of the rest of the molecule.

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 2008

The Journal of Chemical Physics, 2003

We explore the correlation between the energy landscape and topology in the folding of a model protein ͑chicken villin headpiece HP-36͒ by using a force-field which incorporates the effects of water through a hydropathy scale and the role of helical propensity of amino acids through a nonlocal harmonic potential. Each amino acid is represented by one side chain atom which is attached to the backbone C ␣ atom. Sizes and interactions of all the side chain residues are different and depend on the hydrophobicity of a particular amino acid, whereas helical propensities are incorporated in the interaction of C ␣ atoms. Simulations have been carried out by quenching from a fixed high temperature to two different low temperatures for many initial random configurations. The simulated structures resemble the real native state rather closely, with the root mean square deviation of the best structure being 4.5 Å. Moreover, the structure shows both the helices and bends at the appropriate positions of the model protein. The simplified model allows the study of energy landscape and also of the correlation between energy landscape with the dynamics of folding and topology. The initial part of folding is very fast, followed by two distinct slow stages, with the last stage being certainly the rate determining of the folding process. The initial fast dynamics is primarily due to hydrophobic collapse. The very slow last stage of folding is accompanied by a significant and sharp increase in the relative contact order parameter but relatively small decrease in energy. Analysis of the time dependence of the formation of the individual contact pairs show rich and complicated dynamics, where some contacts wait for a long time to form. This seems to suggest that the slow late stage folding is due to long range contact formation and also that the free energy barrier is entropic in origin. Results have been correlated with the theories of protein folding.

Biochemistry, 2006

For many decades, protein folding experimentalists have worked with no information about the timescales of relevant protein folding motions and without methods for estimating the height of folding barriers. Experiments in protein folding have been interpreted using chemical models in which the folding process is characterized as a series of equilibria between two or more distinct states that interconvert with activated kinetics. Accordingly, the information to be extracted from experiment was circumscribed to apparent equilibrium constants and relative folding rates. Recent developments are changing this situation dramatically. The combination of fast-folding experiments with the development of analytical methods more closely connected to physical theory reveals that folding barriers in native conditions range from minimally high (~14 RT for the very slow folder AcP) to nonexisting. While slow-folding (i.e. 1 millisecond or longer) single domain proteins are expected to fold in a two-state fashion, microsecond-folding proteins should exhibit complex behavior arising from crossing marginal or negligible folding barriers. This realization opens a realm of exciting opportunities for experimentalists. The free energy surface of a protein with marginal (or no) barrier can be mapped using equilibrium experiments, which could resolve energetic from structural factors in folding. Kinetic experiments on these proteins provide the unique opportunity to measure folding dynamics directly. Furthermore, the complex distributions of time-dependent folding behaviors expected for these proteins might be accessible to single molecule measurements. Here, we discuss some of these recent developments in protein folding, emphasizing aspects that can serve as a guide for experimentalists interested in exploiting this new avenue of research.

Journal of Molecular Biology, 1995

The 64-residue protein chymotrypsin inhibitor 2 (CI2) is a single module of structure. It folds and unfolds as a single co-operative unit by simple Function and Design two-state kinetics via a single rate determining transition state. This Cambridge Centre for Protein transition state has been characterized at the level of individual residues Engineering, University Chemical Laboratory by analysis of the rates and equilibria of folding of some 100 mutants strategically distributed at 45 sites throughout the protein. Only one Lensfield Road, Cambridge CB2 1EW, U.K.

We have documented the folding pathway of the 10-kDa protein barstar from the first few microseconds at the resolution of individual residues from its well characterized denatured state. The denatured state had been shown from NMR to have f lickering native-like structure in the first two of its four ␣-helices. ⌽-value analysis shows that the first helix becomes substantially consolidated as the intermediate is formed in a few hundred microseconds, as does the second to a lesser extent. A native-like structure then is formed in a few hundred milliseconds as the whole structure consolidates. Peptide fragments corresponding to sequences containing the first two helices separately and together as a helix-loop-helix motif have little helical structure under conditions that favor folding. The early stages of folding fit the nucleationcondensation model that was proposed for the smaller chymotrypsin inhibitor 2, which is a single module of structure and folds by two-state kinetics. The early stages of the multistate folding of the larger, multimodular, barnase have proved experimentally inaccessible. The folding pathway of barstar links those of CI2 and barnase to give a unified scheme for folding.

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 1998

We characterize, at the atomic level, the mechanism and thermodynamics of folding of a small α/β protein. The thermodynamically significant states of segment B1 of streptococcal protein G (GB1) are probed by using the statistical mechanical methods of importance sampling and molecular dynamics. From a thermodynamic standpoint, folding commences with overall collapse, accompanied by formation of ∼35% of the native structure. Specific contacts form at the loci experimentally inferred to be structured early in folding kinetics studies. Our study reveals that these initially structured regions are not spatially adjacent. As folding progresses, fluid-like nonlocal native contacts form, with many contacts forming and breaking as the structure searches for the native conformation. Although the α-helix forms early, the β-sheet forms concomitantly with the overall topology. Water is present in the protein core up to a late stage of folding, lubricating conformational transitions during the s...

2006

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 2001

Previous experimental and theoretical studies have produced highresolution descriptions of the native and folding transition states of chymotrypsin inhibitor 2 (CI2). In similar fashion, here we use a combination of NMR experiments and molecular dynamics simulations to examine the conformations populated by CI2 in the denatured state. The denatured state is highly unfolded, but there is some residual native helical structure along with hydrophobic clustering in the center of the chain. The lack of persistent nonnative structure in the denatured state reduces barriers that must be overcome, leading to fast folding through a nucleation-condensation mechanism. With the characterization of the denatured state, we have now completed our description of the folding͞ unfolding pathway of CI2 at atomic resolution.

Protein Engineering, Design and Selection, 2001

Funnel-like landscapes are widely used to visualize protein folding. It might seem that any funnel-like energy landscape helps to avoid the 'Levinthal paradox', i.e. to avoid sampling the impossibly large number of conformations for a folding protein. This cunning suggestion, reinforced by beautiful drawings of the energy funnels, stimulated some simple models of protein folding; one of them [D.J. Bicout and A. Szabo (2000) Protein Sci., 9, 452-465] is especially straightforward and instructive. A thorough analysis of this strict funnel model (which does not consider a nucleation of phase separation in the course of folding) shows that it cannot provide a simultaneous explanation for both major features observed for protein folding: (i) folding within non-astronomical time, and (ii) coexistence of the native and the unfolded states during the folding process. On the contrary, the nucleation mechanism of protein folding can account for both these major features simultaneously. Keywords: coexistence of the native and the unfolded phases/ folding nucleus/protein folding/rate of folding/thermodynamic mid-transition/transition state/two-state kinetics