Papers by Gavin Michal
This paper traces the theological trajectory of rabbinic protest literature by examining rabbinic... more This paper traces the theological trajectory of rabbinic protest literature by examining rabbinic readings of the Psalms-from the initial prohibition against protest as a legitimate theological mode, to its emergence and stabilisation as a dynamic yet sanctioned form of protest, and ultimately, to its retreat, closing the circle. In the second century, resistance to theological protest against God was shaped by Mishnaic authorities such as R. Akiva and R. Elazar, who
This study hypothesises that as a result of a thorough analysis of the context and content of rab... more This study hypothesises that as a result of a thorough analysis of the context and content of rabbinic texts, including the known associations of their authors − spanning the periods of Shabbatai Tzvi, the Baal Shem Tov and the Vilna Gaon − the conclusion can be reasonably drawn that the Chassidic and Mitnagdic movements had been fundamentally subjected to multiple Sabbatian influences and that a causal doctrinal and rabbinic link between Sabbatianism and both the Chassidic and Mitnagdic movements can be demonstrated.
One of the criticisms often levelled at researchers of the history of Chassidism is that investig... more One of the criticisms often levelled at researchers of the history of Chassidism is that investigators make judicious use of ‘external’ historical sources that are foreign to the internal accounts and traditions of the Chassidim themselves. In an attempt to respond to that criticism, it must be pointed out that mysticism in general and by its nature, places more emphasis on personal experientialism than on the need to create an accurate historical public record. This article, however, deals with some representations of Chassidic history which are, in the first instance, presented as factful history and not as hagiography. I examine the historicity of the more ‘extreme’ case of the Kherson Geniza as well as the
more ‘moderate’ example of Shivchei haBesht. I focus on the former but also refer to the latter. While the Kherson Geniza has previously been discussed in various English writings, this article attempts to fill the lacuna of a more detailed and technical investigation presented in the English language.
Journal for Semitics, 2023
Messianic movements and their messianic claimants are surprisingly ubiquitous in Jewish history. ... more Messianic movements and their messianic claimants are surprisingly ubiquitous in Jewish history. The hypothesis is that these movements always show some influence from a previous form of mysticism and reach their expression and culmination in a renewed urgency for messianic activity. This article demonstrates that sixteenth-century messianic tensions, as an example of this phenomenon, repeatedly had their genesis in one or another system of mysticism. The deeper the mystical component, the more dramatic the messianism. The messianic claimant believes he has the power to speak to kings and popes and is convinced he has the means to immediately effect a change in the religious, political, and cosmic order. This investigation focuses on three sixteenth-century Jewish messiahs, Asher Lemlein, David Reuveni, and Shlomo Molcho. Each, as I show, was rooted in an earlier form of mysticism.
The eighteenth-century Frankist movement founded by Jacob Frank (1726-1791) is considered to be a... more The eighteenth-century Frankist movement founded by Jacob Frank (1726-1791) is considered to be a radical hedonistic and nihilistic branch of the already antinomian Jewish messianic Sabbatian movement of the false Messiah, Shabbatai Tzvi (1626-1676). This study explores new research on Frankism which casts the Frankist movement in a new light. It challenges previous perceptions of Frankism as a blatant "opportunistic nihilism," and offers a more sober perspective of one of the strangest movements ever to emerge from Judaism. The purpose of this study is to propose an unlikely synthesis between the re-appraised Frankism on the one hand, and the teachings of the Chassidic Rabbi, Menachem Mendel of Kotzk (1787-1859) on the other. This creates a fusion point of proposed Existentialist thought, where the redefined extremism of the Frankist movement may meet the radical school of Kotzk which openly rebelled against its own roots within the Chassidic movement. The hypothesis is that the convergence between the most moderate point of Frankism and the most extreme point of Chassidism has a common thread of nascent Existentialism evident in both Frankism and Kotzk, without insinuating that the Kotzker Rebbe was a Frankist. with its alleged nihilism, hedonism and anarchism, tainted its adherents in the eyes of both Jews and non-Jews, as the most resented of all the formulations of Judaism. New research, however, reveals that some previously held views, specifically on the questionable moral component of the Frankist movement, may not have been all that secured in historical fact. A new picture now emerges of Frankian thought as a more fathomable philosophical worldview, and as this study argues, a premodernist 1 expression of an emerging and latent form of Existentialism. 2 The study proceeds to posit that this nascent Existentialism was soon mirrored in the Chassidic school of the Kotzker Rabbi − or Rebbe as Chassidic rabbis are called − who was born just four years before Jacob Frank had passed away. The irony is that the Chassidic movement, founded by R. Israel Baal Shem Tov, itself started out as a radical spiritual movement to counter the staid conservatism of earlier rabbinic Judaism. The Kotzker Rebbe was born just 27 years after the passing of the Baal Shem Tov, and by the time he became a Rebbe, the Chassidic movement had already lost its revolutionary edge. Kotzk can, therefore, be seen as an internal revolution within Chassidism. The proposal of an unlikely synergy between the re-evaluation of Frankism and an examination of some degree of apparent antinomianism activity in Kotzk, will be evaluated in light of the bigger question of possible Sabbatian and Frankian influences on the Chassidic movement in general; as well as known interactions between some Chassidic leaders and influential Sabbatians and Frankists. This study suggests that nascent existential thought, in keeping with modernist trends, began to emerge within the broader society as early as the Frankist period and certainly from the time of the Kotzker Rebbe. 3 Attention is then drawn to a common thread running through both these evolutionary processes in Frankism and the school of Kotzk − the need for Jacob Frank and the Kotzker Rebbe to somehow show a grounding in scriptural sources. 1 The modernist movement technically began from the late nineteenth century, but this study addresses what might be termed the 'early stirrings 'of modernist thought. 2 This study uses the term "existentialism" although it is technically anachronistic as it was only coined by Gabriel Marcel in 1943. It is reasonable to contend, however, that the general concepts, and as yet undefined ideas of Existentialism, would have existed even before they officially entered the lexicon. 3 Moshe Rosman (2007:7) positions Chassidism squarely within an emerging modernist culture and environment: "Hasidism was characterized by some of the prominent markers of…modernization." Podolia had been under Ottoman rule for twenty-seven years during the seventeenth century. Being in a transitional and "liminal contested space" with an almost continuous war between the Turks and the Polish Lithuanian Commonwealth, Podolia also became a centre of general religious dissension-if not a haven − where unorthodox members of the Jewish, Christian and Muslim faiths gathered. The rabbis did not manage to exercise their authority over Podolia. It was in this setting of religious schismaticism and sometimes heresy, that the Frankist movement emerged (Maciejko 2022-lecture). Jan Doktór (2018:261) describes the Frankist movement, founded by Jacob Frank (1726-1791) as emerging out "of the Sabbatean underground." The Sabbatian movement was condemned by the mainstream rabbinate after its founder, Shabbatai Tzvi (1626-1676) apostatised to Islam after the majority of the Jewish world believed him to have been the Jewish messiah (Scholem 1987:262). Sabbatianism was subsequently driven underground and became the parent of the more radical Frankist movement, with Jacob Frank also proclaiming himself the messiah. Within a short time, Frankism became associated with anarchy, nihilism and immorality. Doktór, however, questions some of the historiographies of the Frankist movement as commonly presented, and this is largely because the stories, are so strange. The term Frankist is employed even though this designation was only in use from around the early nineteenth century. During the eighteenth century, the Frankists were still referred to as the Maaminin (Believers) just like the earlier Sabbatians, and were considered synonymous with the "sect of Shabbatai Tzvi" (Doktór 2018:261). This being the case, it would be fair to say that in terms of possible influences on the Chassidic movement, there would have been no substantial differences between Sabbatians and early Frankists. Even later on, the terms 'Sabbatian' and 'Frankist' are used interchangeably, although we now know that the latter was a radical mutation of the former. The Frankist movement officially took hold on January 27, 1756. The Baal Shem Tov passed away in 1760. This situates Frankism within the setting of the early Chassidic period and supports the notion that both groups would have been aware of each other. With accounts of interactions between the two movements, potential for rivalry, opposition as well as influence, is established.
In this study, I trace the developmental patterns of Jewish messianism. Judaism has a rich ancien... more In this study, I trace the developmental patterns of Jewish messianism. Judaism has a rich ancient and modern history of rabbis who claimed to have been the Messiah. I focus on the Sabbatian movement because it stands out as having an unparalleled influence on so many people. Messianic movements have always had large followings but never with numbers like this. These included respected rabbis and halachic leaders who expounded on religious law, yet they endorsed Shabbatai Tzvi, and many even adhered to his ideology after his death. Although Sabbatianism is often just ignored by Jewish history, in reality, it was the mould which gave form to almost every Jewish movement which followed, religious and secular; including orthodoxy, modern Zionism, and even (or particularly) Chassidism.
OTE, 2022
Today, the Jewish world has adopted a popularist-if not theurgical approach to the Book of Psalms... more Today, the Jewish world has adopted a popularist-if not theurgical approach to the Book of Psalms, where the Psalms take on a mystical and almost magical function. 1 However widespread, this is only one facet of a kaleidoscope of multifaceted and divergent methodologies that lie within the rubric of rabbinic Psalm interpretation. This article looks at some of the theology underpinning the essential structures of the Psalms as seen through the eyes of the classical rabbis. The analysis begins with the overall edifice of the Psalter, its division into books and their order, discusses the nomenclature and the aspect of musicology, and rabbinic views concerning their authorship and provenance. The article proceeds to investigate diverse and sometimes mutually exclusive rabbinic opinions regarding the essential intent, usage and status of the Psalms. In the final analysis, readers are left bewildered as to whether the Psalms hold the key to the secrets of the universe or whether Jews are even allowed to pray by using the Psalms because of their exalted spiritual stature, or on the contrary, whether the Psalms are merely human expressions of prayer and grappling attempts at making sense of a difficult world, and therefore, of diminished and mundane status.
Conference Presentations by Gavin Michal
This paper explores how Jewish theological discourse has responded to the presence of other relig... more This paper explores how Jewish theological discourse has responded to the presence of other religions through the lens of rabbinic thinkers from the twelfth century to the present. It considers how notions of tolerance and universalism have emerged, evolved-and been contested-within the rabbinic tradition. Through analysis of key texts and commentaries, it highlights the diversity within Jewish thought-from exclusivist frameworks to radically inclusive models-and examines how these views have shaped interfaith discourse, influenced Halachic rulings, and contributed to broader debates on religious pluralism. Section 1 addresses the tensions that arise when rabbinic figures are perceived to overextend in their embrace of tolerance, as in the case of Chief Rabbi Jonathan Sacks, whose statements on the validity of other faiths sparked significant controversy in his own community. This episode serves as a lens to explore the boundaries of theological tolerance within Orthodox Judaism. Section 2 interrogates whether the universalist tendencies of rabbis like Adin Steinsaltz are anomalies or integral to Jewish tradition, and whether they stem from Orthodox foundations or reflect liberal interpretations.
The Three Oaths and the Restriction on Ascending to the Land of Israel: Cancellation and Resurrection Theologies, 2025
This paper examines the Talmudic conceptualisation of the 'Three Oaths' as derived by the Babylon... more This paper examines the Talmudic conceptualisation of the 'Three Oaths' as derived by the Babylonian Talmud from three obscure verses in the Song of Songs. It focuses on the theological tension between the Three Oaths which prohibit a return to the Land of Israel until the Messiah arrives, and the desire to settle in the Land. The Three Oaths were designed to engender a nonmilitaristic and pacifist exilic ethos within the Jewish people after the devastating defeats of the Bar Kochba revolt against the Romans. It also touches upon the biblical notion of Commanded or Holy War. The main concern of this study is not political but theological. It presents an array of often tendentious exegesis and creative evolution of the Three Oaths that originated in a time-specific Talmudic pericope but continues to this day ꟷ paradoxically resulting in concurrent cancellation and resurrection theologies.
This paper will show that although Abravanel practised conservativism with regard to his views on... more This paper will show that although Abravanel practised conservativism with regard to his views on the Pentateuch (although he sharply challenged some aspects regarding the provenance of the book Deuteronomy), he had some daring assertions about other sections of the biblical canon. One must bear in mind that this was about two and a half centuries before Jean Astruc, the father of the Documentary Hypothesis, yet in some ways, he seemed to preempt aspects of this critical approach.
The early to central section of the Jewish daily morning prayer service 2 is known as Pesukei deZ... more The early to central section of the Jewish daily morning prayer service 2 is known as Pesukei deZimra, or verses of praise, essentially comprising the last six psalms of Sefer Tehillim (The Book of Psalms). This section, however, was only incorporated into the Siddur (Prayer Book) around the ninth to eleventh centuries which was long after the prayer services had already been established. 3 In this article, I question why these psalms were inserted into the liturgy at that specific juncture in history, and propose that the addition of Pesukei deZimra was related to a political process taking place at that time: namely, the decline and eventual demise of the office of the Reish Galuta (Exilarch). The Reish Galuta had overwhelming religious, political and social powers, indeed mirroring the status of earlier Jewish kings. The general tenor of the Pesukei deZimra can be read as a rebellion against, and a minimising of the role of the monarchyfocusing, instead, on a divine Kingship. In other words, it was a reaction against excessive human leadership, control and intervention in a theological system that was supposed to be monotheistic. I suggest that the insertion of Pesukei deZimra into the liturgy was a "re-enactment" of the ideological undercurrents that were prevalent when these types of psalms were instituted in the first place, when the parallel and original biblical monarchy was also being challenged. This necessitates a reading of the Psalms in its sensus literalis as rebellion literature against the monarchy.
This article deals with the irony that confronts any investigation into the conceptualisation of ... more This article deals with the irony that confronts any investigation into the conceptualisation of morality in Judaism: Much of contemporary scholarship promotes the Strong Dependence Theory where God is considered the prime source of morality, yet an empirical analysis of rabbinic literature indicates a leaning more toward the Weak Dependence Theory which is rooted in a human source for morality. Somehow scholarship seems to overlook this textual evidence. On the other hand, that same scholarship has no problem in accepting absolute and complete human autonomy in the area of Jewish religious law or Halacha. This paper explores the question of why humans are comfortably accepted as the primary determinants of religious law but not of moralityand argues for a return to the original Weak Dependence Theory to maintain moral efficacy. The review concludes with an examination of an extreme historical test case for rabbinic moralityhow the rabbinic world dealt internally with the moral implications of major rabbis who had fled the Holocaust.
Published articles by Gavin Michal
Journal for Semitics, 2025
This article examines how subtle "textual framing" embedded within the presentation of all religi... more This article examines how subtle "textual framing" embedded within the presentation of all religious texts can influence the texts even before they are read. Using Psalms as a point of departure, 116 of the 150 psalms begin with introductory titles or superscriptions also known as paratexts, for example, "Lamenatzeach-For the Choirmaster." Depending on the editions, these paratexts are often distinguished from the base or main text of the psalm by some form of spacing to indicate that they were not part of the original text. Their purpose is to frame the psalm for the reader. This study explores the Psalter's paratexts as metaphors for the framing strategies adopted by various theological ideologies within their internal written, oral, and other formulations; and suggests a critical and conscious engagement with all "paratextual framing," rather than an unmitigated acceptance thereof.
Journal For Semitics, 2023
Messianic movements and their messianic claimants are surprisingly ubiquitous in Jewish history. ... more Messianic movements and their messianic claimants are surprisingly ubiquitous in Jewish history. The hypothesis is that these movements always show some influence from a previous form of mysticism and reach their expression and culmination in a renewed urgency for messianic activity. This article demonstrates that sixteenth-century messianic tensions, as an example of this phenomenon, repeatedly had their genesis in one or another system of mysticism. The deeper the mystical component, the more dramatic the messianism. The messianic claimant believes he has the power to speak to kings and popes and is convinced he has the means to immediately effect a change in the religious, political, and cosmic order. This investigation focuses on three sixteenth-century Jewish messiahs, Asher Lemlein, David Reuveni, and Shlomo Molcho. Each, as I show, was rooted in an earlier form of mysticism.
Old Testament Essays, 2022
Today, the Jewish world has adopted a popularist - if not theurgical - approach to the Book of Ps... more Today, the Jewish world has adopted a popularist - if not theurgical - approach to the Book of Psalms, where the Psalms take on a mystical and almost magical function. However widespread, this is only one facet of a kaleidoscope of multifaceted and divergent methodologies that lie within the rubric of rabbinic Psalm interpretation. This article looks at some of the theology underpinning the essential structures of the Psalms as seen through the eyes of the classical rabbis. The analysis begins with the overall edifice of the Psalter, its division into books and their order, discusses the nomenclature and the aspect of musicology, and rabbinic views concerning their authorship and provenance. The article proceeds to investigate diverse and sometimes mutuallyexclusive rabbinic opinions regarding the essential intent, usage and status of the Psalms. In the final analysis, readers are left bewildered as to whether the Psalms hold the key to the secrets of the universe or whether Jews are even allowed to pray by using the Psalms because of their exalted spiritual stature, or on the contrary, whether the Psalms are merely human expressions of prayer and grappling attempts at making sense of a difficult world, and therefore, of diminished and mundane status.
Verbum et Ecclesia, 2024
This article dealt with the irony that confronts any investigation into the conceptualisation of ... more This article dealt with the irony that confronts any investigation into the conceptualisation of morality in Judaism: much of contemporary scholarship promotes the Strong Dependence Theory where God is considered the prime source of morality − yet an empirical analysis of classical rabbinic literature indicates a leaning more towards the Weak Dependence Theory which considers human beings the source for morality. Somehow, scholarship seems to overlook this textual evidence. On the other hand, that same contemporary scholarship has no problem in accepting absolute and complete human autonomy in the area of Jewish religious law or Halacha. This study questioned why humans are comfortably accepted as the primary determinants of religious law but not of morality – and argued for a return to the original Weak Dependence Theory to maintain moral efficacy. It included an examination of an extreme historical test case for rabbinic morality concerning how the rabbinic world dealt internally with the moral implications of major rabbis who had fled the Holocaust.
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Papers by Gavin Michal
more ‘moderate’ example of Shivchei haBesht. I focus on the former but also refer to the latter. While the Kherson Geniza has previously been discussed in various English writings, this article attempts to fill the lacuna of a more detailed and technical investigation presented in the English language.
Conference Presentations by Gavin Michal
Published articles by Gavin Michal