Papers by Gary E McPherson

Frontiers in Psychology, 2021
The situational context within which an activity takes place, as well as the personality characte... more The situational context within which an activity takes place, as well as the personality characteristics of individuals shape the types of strategies people choose in order to regulate their emotions, especially when confronted with challenging or undesirable situations. Taking self-regulation as the framework to study emotions in relation to learning and performing chamber music canon repertoire, this quasi-experimental and intra-individual study focused on the self-rated emotional states of a professional classical cellist during long-term sustained practice across 100-weeks. This helped to develop greater awareness of different emotions and how they vary over artistic events (9 profiled concerts and 1 commercially recorded album). Data analysis included traditional psychometric measurements to test the internal consistency of the time series data as well as the relationship between variables (artistic events). The study mapped the cellist's flexible regulation of 17 different positive and negative emotions empirically linked to learning and achievement while practicing within the social context of performing music publicly at a high level. Findings arising from the study help with understandings of how to support musicians to maximize their artistic potential by reducing emotion dysregulation and strengthening the types of adaptive methods that enable them to manage their own emotions.

Frontiers in Psychology, 2020
The professional practice of classical music performers has been better understood and enhanced a... more The professional practice of classical music performers has been better understood and enhanced across the last two decades through research aimed at tailoring rehearsing strategies that support the development of a sense of self as an agentic and proactive learner. One approach focuses on helping students make use of various tools that can enhance their learning, particularly in terms of what they do, feel and think when practicing and performing music. This study expands literature on expertise development by embracing the idea that this line of research would benefit from additional studies where the researcher forms part of the research process as an active participant who generates data, especially when these researchers are "members" of the social world they study, and therefore have insider knowledge. Thus, this case study is focused on the first author, a professional cellist who is also a researcher in the educational psychology of music, as the only participant. It extends current research by providing a detailed longitudinal mapping of a professional cellist's preparation across nine profiled concerts in five countries of classical-romantic repertoire and a commercial recording that resulted from 100 weeks of dedicated practice. Anonymous feedback from the audiences and interviews with an expert musician who followed the concerts and the CD recording was also collected. For the data analysis, traditional psychometric measurements were applied to test the internal consistency of the time series data as well as the relationship between variables. In addition, the application of Leximancer analysis of the self-reflections allowed the researchers to probe self-regulated learning (SRL) and self-determination theory (SDT) processes in ways that uniquely mapped, over time, her differing motivations to perform at a high level. Specifically, we report that the cellist's psychological needs and her motivational resources changed across time within the social context of performing music publicly, and that the various self-regulatory processes she drew upon impacted (both positively and negatively) on her ongoing actions, thoughts and feelings. Implications of the study are relevant for all forms of expertise development research, and especially for understandings about the nature of skill development in the context of learning to perform demanding literature in music.

This article describes the development of a music practice microanalysis protocol that is based o... more This article describes the development of a music practice microanalysis protocol that is based on the three-phase model of self-regulated learning (i.e., Forethought, Performance, and Self-Reflection). Up until now, most studies on music practice have tended to focus on behavioural aspects. The expanded view presented here outlines a technique for mapping the types of behaviours (actions), cognition (thoughts), and affect (feelings) that can help focus musicians' practice. To explain the technique, we describe the practice of two first year Bachelor of Music students studying at a prominent university music school who are compared at three time points across one semester as they prepare an étude for a performance exam. These case studies demonstrate two broadly contrasting self-regulated learning profiles of how microanalysis can be used to cue students to think about what they are doing and then reflect critically on the strategies they can use to improve their playing. As a technique, microanalysis can inform educational interventions aimed at breaking the cycle of habits that typify musical practice by encouraging musicians to become more behaviourally, metacognitively, and motivationally involved in their own learning.

This chapter discusses self-regulated learning (SRL) in the context of music. SRL holds significa... more This chapter discusses self-regulated learning (SRL) in the context of music. SRL holds significant potential for increasing the efficiency of musical skill acquisition across all aspects of music performance instruction. We begin with a review of selected research that has studied skill acquisition when learning to play a musical instrument. Although the literature related to this topic is growing steadily, much of the scholarship is scattered and atheoretical. Moreover, researchers in music tend to concentrate on behavior and cognition as separate and somewhat unrelated theoretical topics to the exclusion of affect. We discuss these limitations and present a summary of literature that brings research-based evidence pertaining to behavior, cognition, and affect together into a coherent SRL framework. Current and future research priorities are then detailed as a means of outlining ways of maximizing music practice, teacher-student interactions, and efficient approaches to learning complex musical skills. Our final section summarizes the discussion and provides implications for how SRL might be adopted more widely in the music education domain. 1

This article reports on a 10-year longitudinal study of children's musical identity, their instru... more This article reports on a 10-year longitudinal study of children's musical identity, their instrumental practice, and subsequent achievement and motivation for playing music. Before commencing learning on their instrument, participants (N = 157) responded to questions relating to how long they thought they would continue playing their instrument. Once learning commenced, practice was measured using the parents' estimates each year for the first 3 years of learning, and performance was measured using a standardized test. Ten years later, the participants were asked how long they had sustained music learning along with other questions related to their musical development. Those who expressed both a personal long-term view of playing an instrument before they began instruction, and who sustained high amounts of practice in the first 3 years, demonstrated higher achievement and a longer length of time spent in music learning compared to those with a short-term view and low levels of practice. Results suggest that while practice and self-regulation strategies are important, learners who possess a sense of where their future learning might take them and whose personal identity includes a long-term perspective of themselves as a musicians are better positioned to succeed and sustain with their instrumental learning. The turn of the century has seen researchers in music education and related areas focus their attention on personal, psychological, social, and cognitive factors, rather than innate, fixed traits to explain why only a small number of children are able to sustain the practice necessary

Music is an integral part of the cultural heritage of all known human societies, with the capacit... more Music is an integral part of the cultural heritage of all known human societies, with the capacity for music perception and production present in most people. Researchers generally agree that both genetic and environmental factors contribute to the broader realization of music ability, with the degree of music aptitude varying, not only from individual to individual, but across various components of music ability within the same individual. While environmental factors influencing music development and expertise have been well investigated in the psychological and music literature, the interrogation of possible genetic influences has not progressed at the same rate. Recent advances in genetic research offer fertile ground for exploring the genetic basis of music ability. This paper begins with a brief overview of behavioral and molecular genetic approaches commonly used in human genetic analyses, and then critically reviews the key findings of genetic investigations of the components of music ability. Some promising and converging findings have emerged, with several loci on chromosome 4 implicated in singing and music perception, and certain loci on chromosome 8q implicated in absolute pitch and music perception. The gene AVPR1A on chromosome 12q has also been implicated in music perception, music memory, and music listening, whereas SLC6A4 on chromosome 17q has been associated with music memory and choir participation. Replication of these results in alternate populations and with larger samples is warranted to confirm the findings. Through increased research efforts, a clearer picture of the genetic mechanisms underpinning music ability will hopefully emerge.

Within the culture of an all-male private school, sport often holds a special status as compared ... more Within the culture of an all-male private school, sport often holds a special status as compared with music. As an area of learning and participation, sport is typically associated with masculinity and receives broad social acceptance, whereas music is often seen at the margins of the curriculum and considered as an activity for a select few who are innately talented. Because of these perceptions, participation rates for males are often higher for sport than they are for music. With this as our context, this study examined differences between the two elective subjects of music and sport, by seeking to investigate boys' motivation to choose whether or not to elect music and sport in the final years of high school. The study utilized an online survey that was completed by 293 subjects (13 to 16 years old, school years 8 to 10). Results indicate that the boys were more motivated to select elective sport rather than music (42.7% vs. 4.8%, respectively), with 49.8% choosing neither music nor sport. A comparison of facilitators of elective music and sport revealed similarities across the two domains, with interest in the subject (music or sport) receiving the highest mean rating for elective facilitation. Seven of the nine impediment scales were significantly higher for music (only importance of the subject and parental influence were statistically identical across sport and music). The study is the first of which we are aware that directly compares music and sport as school subjects, and as such, offers insight into the different motivational forces that act to either facilitate or impede students' choice of these subjects within an all-male private school.
170 participants were played short excerpts of orchestral music and instructed to move a mouse cu... more 170 participants were played short excerpts of orchestral music and instructed to move a mouse cursor as quickly as possible to one of six faces that best corresponded to the emotion they thought the music expressed. Excerpts were analysed and the musical cues coded. Relationships between the number of cues and participants' response times were investigated and reported. No relationship between the number of cues available to the listener and the speed of response was found. Findings suggest that the initial response to ecologically plausible musical excerpts is quite complex, and requires further investigation to provide emotion-retrieval models of music with psychologically driven data.

This paper discusses the uses of sound to provide information about emotion. The review of the li... more This paper discusses the uses of sound to provide information about emotion. The review of the literature suggests that music is able to communicate and express a wide variety of emotions. The novel aspect of the present study is a reconceptualisation of this literature by considering music as having the capacity to sonify emotions. A study was conducted in which excerpts of non-vocal film music were selected to sonify six putative emotions. Participants were then invited to identify which emotions each excerpt sonified. The results demonstrate a good specificity of emotion sonification, with errors attributable to selection of emotions close in meaning to the target (excited confused with happy, but not with sad, for example). While 'sonification' of emotions has been applied in opera and film for some time, the present study allows a new way of conceptualizing the ability of sound to communicate affect through music. Philosophical and psychological implications are considered.
An interface based on expressions in simple graphics of faces were aligned in a clock-like distri... more An interface based on expressions in simple graphics of faces were aligned in a clock-like distribution with the aim of allowing participants to quickly and easily rate emotions in music continuously. We developed the interface and tested it using six extracts of music, one targeting each of the six faces: 'Excited' (at 1 o'clock), 'Happy' (3), 'Calm' (5), 'Sad' , 'Scared' (9) and 'Angry' (11).

Recent instruments measuring continuous self-reported emotion responses to music have tended to u... more Recent instruments measuring continuous self-reported emotion responses to music have tended to use dimensional rating scale models of emotion such as valence (happy to sad). However, numerous retrospective studies of emotion in music use checklist style responses, usually in the form of emotion words, (such as happy, angry, sad…) or facial expressions. A response interface based on six simple sketch style emotion faces aligned into a clock-like distribution was developed with the aim of allowing participants to quickly and easily rate emotions in music continuously as the music unfolded. We tested the interface using six extracts of music, one targeting each of the six faces: 'Excited' (at 1 o'clock), 'Happy' (3), 'Calm' (5), 'Sad' (7), 'Scared' (9) and 'Angry' (11). 30 participants rated the emotion expressed by these excerpts on our 'emotionface-clock'. By demonstrating how continuous category selections (votes) changed over time, we were able to show that (1) more than one emotion-face could be expressed by music at the same time and (2) the emotion face that best portrayed the emotion the music conveyed could change over time, and (3) the change could be attributed to changes in musical structure. Implications for research on orientation time and mixed emotions are discussed.
An interface based on expressions in simple graphics of faces were aligned in a clock-like distri... more An interface based on expressions in simple graphics of faces were aligned in a clock-like distribution with the aim of allowing participants to quickly and easily rate emotions in music continuously. We developed the interface and tested it using six extracts of music, one targeting each of the six faces: 'Excited' (at 1 o'clock), 'Happy' (3), 'Calm' (5), 'Sad' , 'Scared' (9) and 'Angry' (11).
Self-determination theory conceives of motivation as lying along an intrinsic-extrinsic continuum... more Self-determination theory conceives of motivation as lying along an intrinsic-extrinsic continuum and has been investigated extensively in school learning, but less in performance domains. This paper investigates the ways that students manifest multiple motives for striving in the demanding field of musical performance. Performance examination candidates (n=677) aged 8-19 years completed questionnaires. Factor analysis produced five motives lying along the internal-external continuum.

Self-determination theory conceives of motivation as lying along an intrinsic-extrinsic continuum... more Self-determination theory conceives of motivation as lying along an intrinsic-extrinsic continuum and has been investigated extensively in school learning, but less in performance domains. This paper investigates the ways that students manifest multiple motives for striving in the demanding field of musical performance. Performance examination candidates (n=677) aged 8-19 years completed questionnaires. Factor analysis produced five motives lying along the internal-external continuum. Cluster analysis then generated four groups of participants: (1) a group reporting high levels of internal motives and low levels of external motives, (2) a group reporting high levels of all five motives, (3) a group reporting low levels of internal motives and high levels of external motives, and (4) a group reporting low levels of all five motives. Results showed that both groups with high levels of internal motives achieved higher performance results than the two groups with low levels of internal motives. The high-external/low-internal group did not differ in performance achievement from the group reporting low levels of all motives. The study confirms prior research in suggesting that high levels of internalized motives can work together with high levels of external motives to produce excellent performance, but external motives alone are insufficient.

Motivational research in academic subjects has demonstrated that when students are interested in ... more Motivational research in academic subjects has demonstrated that when students are interested in an activity and feel free to choose whether or not to do it, they are more likely to engage in higher-level cognitive functioning, ®nd it easier to concentrate, persevere, and enjoy their learning. This case study of a young beginning clarinettist named Clarissa consisted of interviews and computer analysis of videotaped practice sessions. Clarissa's practice behaviour in teacher-assigned repertoire was compared with her work on a piece she chose to learn herself. Results show that when practising self-selected repertoire, Clarissa was more likely to engage in strategies that are typical at more advanced stages of development, such as silent ®ngering, silent thinking and singing. She also spent more time practising the piece, and persevered when faced with dif®culties. Implications for instrumental pedagogy are discussed.
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Papers by Gary E McPherson