Papers by Daniele Santamaria
Semantic web, Mar 14, 2024
Electronic commerce and finance are progressively supporting and including decentralized, shared ... more Electronic commerce and finance are progressively supporting and including decentralized, shared and public ledgers such as the blockchain. This is reshaping traditional commercial activities by advancing them towards Decentralized Finance (DeFi) and Commerce 3.0, thereby supporting the latter's potential to outpace the hurdles of central authority controllers and lawgivers. The quantity and entropy of the information that must be sought and managed to become active participants in such a relentlessly evolving scenario are increasing at a steady pace. For example, that information comprises asset or service description, general rules of the game, and specific technologies involved for decentralization. Moreover, the relevant information ought to be shared among innumerable and heterogeneous stakeholders, such as producers, buyers, digital identity providers, valuation services, and shipment services, to just name a few. A clear semantic representation of such a complex and multifaceted blockchain-based e-Commerce ecosystem would contribute dramatically to make it more usable, namely more automatically accessible to virtually anyone wanting to play the role of a stakeholder, thereby reducing programmers' effort. However, we feel that reaching that goal still requires substantial effort in the tailoring of Semantic Web technologies, hence this article sets out on such a route and advances a stack of OWL 2 ontologies for the semantic description of decentralized e-commerce. The stack includes a number of relevant features, ranging from the applicable stakeholders through the supply chain of the offerings for an asset, up to the Ethereum blockchain, its tokens and smart contracts. Ontologies are defined by taking a behaviouristic approach to represent the various participants as agents in terms of their actions, inspired by the Theory of Agents and the related mentalistic notions. The stack is validated through appropriate metrics and SPARQL queries implementing suitable competency questions, then demonstrated through the representation of a real world use case, namely, the iExec marketplace.
arXiv (Cornell University), Jun 30, 2023
Foundational ontologies devoted to the effective representation of processes and procedures are n... more Foundational ontologies devoted to the effective representation of processes and procedures are not widely investigated at present, thereby limiting the practical adoption of semantic approaches in real scenarios where the precise instructions to follow must be considered. Also, the representation ought to include how agents should carry out the actions associated with the process, whether or not agents are able to perform those actions, the possible roles played as well as the related events. The OASIS 2 ontology [1, 2] provides an established model to capture agents and their interactions but lacks means for representing processes and procedures carried out by agents. This motivates the research presented in this article, which delivers an extension of the OASIS 2 ontology to combine the capabilities for representing agents and their behaviours with the full conceptualization of processes and procedures. The overarching goal is to deliver a foundational OWL ontology that deals with agent planning, reaching a balance between generality and applicability, which is known to be an open challenge.
arXiv (Cornell University), Jun 30, 2023
Cybersecurity, which notoriously concerns both human and technological aspects, is becoming more ... more Cybersecurity, which notoriously concerns both human and technological aspects, is becoming more and more regulated by a number of textual documents spanning several pages, such as the European GDPR Regulation and the NIS Directive. This paper introduces an approach that leverages techniques of semantic representation and reasoning, hence an ontological approach, towards the compliance check with the security measures that textual documents prescribe. We choose the ontology instrument to achieve two fundamental objectives: domain modelling and resource interrogation. The formalisation of entities and relations from the directive, and the consequent improved structuring with respect to sheer prose is dramatically helpful for any organisation through the hard task of compliance verification. The semantic approach is demonstrated with two articles of the new European NIS 2 directive.
arXiv (Cornell University), Jun 29, 2023
Legal language can be understood as the language typically used by those engaged in the legal pro... more Legal language can be understood as the language typically used by those engaged in the legal profession and, as such, it may come both in spoken or written form. Recent legislation on cybersecurity obviously uses legal language in writing, thus inheriting all its interpretative complications due to the typical abundance of cases and sub-cases as well as to the general richness in detail. This paper faces the challenge of the essential interpretation of the legal language of cybersecurity, namely of the extraction of the essential Parts of Speech (POS) from the legal documents concerning cybersecurity. The challenge is overcome by our methodology for POS tagging of legal language. It leverages state-of-the-art open-source tools for Natural Language Processing (NLP) as well as manual analysis to validate the outcomes of the tools. As a result, the methodology is automated and, arguably, general for any legal language following minor tailoring of the preprocessing step. It is demonstrated over the most relevant EU legislation on cybersecurity, namely on the NIS 2 directive, producing the first, albeit essential, structured interpretation of such a relevant document. Moreover, our findings indicate that tools such as SpaCy and ClausIE reach their limits over the legal language of the NIS 2.
A framework for cognitive chatbots based on abductive-deductive inference
Cognitive Systems Research, Sep 1, 2023
This paper presents a framework based on natural language processing and first-order logic aiming... more This paper presents a framework based on natural language processing and first-order logic aiming at instantiating cognitive chatbots. The proposed framework leverages two types of knowledge bases interacting with each other in a meta-reasoning process. The first one is devoted to the reactive interactions within the environment, while the second one to conceptual reasoning. The latter exploits a combination of axioms represented with rich semantics and abduction as pre-stage of deduction, dealing also with some of the state-of-the-art issues in the natural language ontology domain. As a case study, a Telegram chatbot system has been implemented, supported by a module which automatically transforms polar and wh-questions into one or more likely assertions, so as to infer Boolean values or snippets with variable length as factoid answer. The conceptual knowledge base is organized in two layers, representing both long-and short-term memory. The knowledge transition between the two layers is achieved by leveraging both a greedy algorithm and the engine's features of a NoSQL database, with promising timing performance if compared with the adoption of a single layer. Furthermore, the implemented chatbot only requires the knowledge base in natural language sentences, avoiding any script updates or code refactoring when new knowledge has to income. The framework has been also evaluated as cognitive system by taking into account the state-of the art criteria: the results show that AD-CASPAR is an interesting starting point for the design of psychologically inspired cognitive systems, endowed of functional features and integrating different types of perception.
Zenodo (CERN European Organization for Nuclear Research), Nov 23, 2021
MiBACT officer Since 2007 he has been directing and coordinating the SITAR (Sistema Informativo T... more MiBACT officer Since 2007 he has been directing and coordinating the SITAR (Sistema Informativo Territoriale Archeologico di Roma) project of the Soprintendenza Speciale Archeologia Belle Arti e Paesaggio di Roma, for the creation of the first archaeological cadastre of the City.
arXiv (Cornell University), Jun 30, 2023
Large documents written in juridical language are difficult to interpret, with long sentences lea... more Large documents written in juridical language are difficult to interpret, with long sentences leading to intricate and intertwined relations between the nouns. The present paper frames this problem in the context of recent European security directives. The complexity of their language is here thwarted by automating the extraction of the relevant information, namely of the parts of speech from each clause, through a specific tailoring of Natural Language Processing (NLP) techniques. These contribute, in combination with ontology development principles, to the design of our automated method for the representation of security directives as ontologies. The method is showcased on a practical problem, namely to derive an ontology representing the NIS 2 directive, which is the peak of cybersecurity prescripts at the European level. Although the NLP techniques adopted showed some limitations and had to be complemented by manual analysis, the overall results provide valid support for directive compliance in general and for ontology development in particular.
Studies in computational intelligence, 2022
Blockchains are gaining momentum due to the interest of industries and people in decentralized ap... more Blockchains are gaining momentum due to the interest of industries and people in decentralized applications (Dapps), particularly in those for trading assets through digital certificates secured on blockchain, called tokens. As a consequence, providing a clear unambiguous description of any activities carried out on blockchains has become crucial, and we feel the urgency to achieve that description at least for trading. This paper reports on how to leverage the Ontology for Agents, Systems, and Integration of Services ("OASIS") as a general means for the semantic representation of smart contracts stored on blockchain as software agents. Special attention is paid to non-fungible tokens (NFTs), whose management through the ERC721 standard is presented as a case study.
Intelligenza Artificiale
Semantic representation is a key enabler for several application domains, and the multi-agent sy... more Semantic representation is a key enabler for several application domains, and the multi-agent systems realm makes no exception. Among the methods for semantically representing agents, one has been essentially achieved by taking a behaviouristic vision, through which one can describe how they operate and engage with their peers. The approach essentially aims at defining the operational capabilities of agents through the mental states related with the achievement of tasks. The OASIS ontology — An Ontology for Agent, Systems, and Integration of Services, presented in 2019 — pursues the behaviouristic approach to deliver a semantic representation system and a communication protocol for agents and their commitments. This paper reports on the main modelling choices concerning the representation of agents in OASIS 2, the latest major upgrade of OASIS, and the achievement reached by the ontology since it was first introduced, in particular in the context of ontologies for blockchains.
arXiv (Cornell University), May 18, 2018
We present a KE-tableau-based implementation of a reasoner for a decidable fragment of (stratifie... more We present a KE-tableau-based implementation of a reasoner for a decidable fragment of (stratified) set theory expressing the description logic DL 4LQS R,× (D) (DL 4,× D , for short). Our application solves the main TBox and ABox reasoning problems for DL 4,× D. In particular, it solves the consistency problem for DL 4,× D-knowledge bases represented in set-theoretic terms, and a generalization of the Conjunctive Query Answering problem in which conjunctive queries with variables of three sorts are admitted. The reasoner, which extends and optimizes a previous prototype for the consistency checking of DL 4,× D-knowledge bases (see [7]), is implemented in C++. It supports DL 4,× D-knowledge bases serialized in the OWL/XML format, and it admits also rules expressed in SWRL (Semantic Web Rule Language).
An Improved Set-based Reasoner for the Description Logic 𝒟ℒD4,׆
Fundamenta Informaticae, 2021
We present a KE-tableau-based implementation of a reasoner for a decidable fragment of (stratifie... more We present a KE-tableau-based implementation of a reasoner for a decidable fragment of (stratified) set theory expressing the description logic 𝒟ℒ〈4LQSR,×〉(D) (𝒟ℒD4,×, for short). Our application solves the main TBox and ABox reasoning problems for 𝒟ℒD4,×. In particular, it solves the consistency and the classification problems for 𝒟ℒD4,×-knowledge bases represented in set-theoretic terms, and a generalization of the Conjunctive Query Answering problem in which conjunctive queries with variables of three sorts are admitted. The reasoner, which extends and improves a previous version, is implemented in C++. It supports 𝒟ℒD4,×-knowledge bases serialized in the OWL/XML format and it admits also rules expressed in SWRL (Semantic Web Rule Language).
A Set-theoretic Approach to Reasoning Services for the Description Logic 𝒟 ℒ D 4,×
Fundamenta Informaticae, 2020
In this paper we consider the most common TBox and ABox reasoning services for the description lo... more In this paper we consider the most common TBox and ABox reasoning services for the description logic 𝒟ℒ〈4LQSR,x〉(D) ( 𝒟 ℒ D 4,× , for short) and prove their decidability via a reduction to the satisfiability problem for the set-theoretic fragment 4LQSR. 𝒟 ℒ D 4,× is a very expressive description logic. It combines the high scalability and efficiency of rule languages such as the SemanticWeb Rule Language (SWRL) with the expressivity of description logics. In fact, among other features, it supports Boolean operations on concepts and roles, role constructs such as the product of concepts and role chains on the left-hand side of inclusion axioms, role properties such as transitivity, symmetry, reflexivity, and irreflexivity, and data types. We further provide a KE-tableau-based procedure that allows one to reason on the main TBox and ABox reasoning tasks for the description logic 𝒟 ℒ D 4,× . Our algorithm is based on a variant of the KE-tableau system for sets of universally quantified...
We present a prototype version of an ontology-based framework, called PROF-ONTO, that integrates ... more We present a prototype version of an ontology-based framework, called PROF-ONTO, that integrates IoT devices and users with domotic environments. PROF-ONTO is based on a novel OWL 2 ontology, called OASIS (Ontology for Agents, Systems, and Integration of Services), modelling behaviors of agents such as IoT devices and users, and other information concerning user requests, their executions, restrictions and authorizations. User requests are performed by automatically selecting compatible devices: agents expose their behaviors and are invoked accordingly to what they are able to do on specific categories of components. OASIS is also used to build semantic knowledge bases that operate as transparent communication and information exchange systems among agents.
ArXiv, 2017
In this paper we consider the most common ABox reasoning services for the description logic $\dls... more In this paper we consider the most common ABox reasoning services for the description logic $\dlssx$ ($\shdlssx$, for short) and prove their decidability via a reduction to the satisfiability problem for the set-theoretic fragment \flqsr. $\shdlssx$ is a very expressive description logic admitting various concept and role constructs, datatypes, and it allows one to represent rule based languages such as SWRL. Decidability results are achieved by defining a generalized version of the conjunctive query answering problem, called HOCQA (Higher Order Conjunctive Query Answering), that can be instantiated to the most widespread ABox reasoning tasks. Then, a \ke\space based procedure is defined to calculate the answer set from a $\shdlssx$ knowledge base and from a higher order $\shdlssx$ conjunctive query. The system is an extension of a \ke\space based decision procedure for the CQA problem introduced in a previous work and allows one to reason on several well known ABox reasoning tasks.
Digital representation and organization of legacy data plays a crucial role in the diffusion, use... more Digital representation and organization of legacy data plays a crucial role in the diffusion, use, and understanding of data stored in old publications, archives, and museums. An interesting case study comes from data of potteries discovered in ancient rural territories of Eastern Sicily, as the majority of legacy data for this research area exists in the form of old maps and paper catalogues: to make these datasets available at a global level, innovative digital technologies are needed. The Semantic Web offers well established methodologies and tools to semantically model application domains and to integrate data, making them global entities available on the Web. In this contribution, we present OntoCeramic 2.0, an OWL 2 (Web Ontology Language 2) ontology storing archaeological data from the plain of Catania regarding ancient potteries, and whose taxonomy refines and extends OntoCeramic 1.0, an ontology for the classification of ancient ceramics defined in a previous work by some of the authors. OntoCeramic 2.0, constructed according to the standard CIDOC Conceptual Reference Model (CRM), represents and integrates new survey and legacy data on ancient pottery stored in the archives of Heritage Superintendence of Syracuse and Catania, in the Regional Technical Office of Sicily, and in the State Archives of Palermo and Catania.
The ideal Benedictine Monastery: From the Saint Gall map to ontologies
Appl. Ontology, 2021
We present an OWL 2 ontology, called SaintGall, representing the Saint Gall plan, one of the most... more We present an OWL 2 ontology, called SaintGall, representing the Saint Gall plan, one of the most ancient documents arrived intact to us. The Saint Gall plan describes the ideal model of a Benedictine monastic complex that inspired the design of many European monasteries. The structural, functional, and architectural specification of an ideal Benedectine monastery is modeled by the SaintGall ontology, which allows one to analyse and model the Monastery architectural type. This work started with the purpose of relating Catania’s San Nicolò l’Arena Benedectine Monastery with the abstract notion of Benedectine monastery, in the ambit of an ontological model based on the renovation works carried out by the architect Giancarlo De Carlo and developed by the same authors. The SaintGall ontology opens a research path aiming at comparing different monastic architectures that can be useful in any intervention of refurbishment or design for a monastery.
Towards ontological interoperability of cognitive IoT agents based on natural language processing¶
Intelligenza Artificiale
The interoperability of devices from distinct brands on the Internet of Things (IoT) domain is st... more The interoperability of devices from distinct brands on the Internet of Things (IoT) domain is still an open issue. The main reason is that pioneer companies always deliberately neglected to deploy devices able to interoperate with competitors products. The key factors that may invert such a trend derive, on one hand, from the abstraction of communication protocols that facilitates the migration from vertical to horizontal paradigms and, on the other hand, from the introduction of common and shared ontologies encoding devices specifications. The Semantic Web, with all its layers, can be considered the main framework for delivering ontologies, and by virtue of its features, it is surely the ideal means for providing shared knowledge. In this paper we present a framework that instantiates cognitive agents operating in IoT context, endowed with meta-reasoning in the Semantic Web. The framework, called SW-Caspar, is also provided with a module that performs semi-automatic ontology learn...
Intelligent Distributed Computing XIV
Blockchains are gaining momentum due to the interest of industries and people in decentralized ap... more Blockchains are gaining momentum due to the interest of industries and people in decentralized applications (Dapps), particularly in those for trading assets through digital certificates secured on blockchain, called tokens. As a consequence, providing a clear unambiguous description of any activities carried out on blockchains has become crucial, and we feel the urgency to achieve that description at least for trading. This paper reports on how to leverage the Ontology for Agents, Systems, and Integration of Services ("OASIS") as a general means for the semantic representation of smart contracts stored on blockchain as software agents. Special attention is paid to non-fungible tokens (NFTs), whose management through the ERC721 standard is presented as a case study.
ArXiv, 2017
We present an OWL 2 ontology representing the Saint Gall plan, one of the most ancient documents ... more We present an OWL 2 ontology representing the Saint Gall plan, one of the most ancient documents arrived intact to us, which describes the ideal model of a Benedictine monastic complex that inspired the design of many European monasteries.
Intelligent Distributed Computing XIV
In this contribution we extend an ontology for modelling agents and their interactions, called On... more In this contribution we extend an ontology for modelling agents and their interactions, called Ontology for Agents, Systems, and Integration of Services (in short, OASIS), with conditionals and ontological smart contracts (in short, OSCs). OSCs are ontological representations of smart contracts that allow to establish responsibilities and authorizations among agents and set agreements, whereas conditionals allow one to restrict and limit agent interactions, define activation mechanisms that trigger agent actions, and define constraints and contract terms on OSCs. Conditionals and OSCs, as defined in OASIS, are applied to extend with ontological capabilities digital public ledgers such as the blockchain and smart contracts implemented on it. We will also sketch the architecture of a framework based on the OASIS definition of OSCs that exploits the Ethereum platform and the Interplanetary File System.
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Papers by Daniele Santamaria