Articles by Ingar Mørkestøl Gundersen
Nordic Climate Histories. Impacts, Pathways, Narratives, 2025
The rapidly accelerating global warming of our time has reawakened interest in past periods of cl... more The rapidly accelerating global warming of our time has reawakened interest in past periods of climatic change. While the scale and speed of twenty-firstcentury anthropogenic warming are unprecedented, historical experiences hold important information to situate the present. The past does not just provide the indispensable baselines for forecasting the future; it holds the available inventory of human responses to ‘socialise climate’. Crucially, it also helps us connect the abstract forecasts of global computer models to ‘lived’ regional experiences. The Nordic countries, specifically, have long been imagined in relation to their climatic setting. From the sixteenth-century descriptions of Olaus Magnus of the icy North and the idealisations of nineteenth-century romantic nationalism, their cold, harsh, snowy climate has been employed to set the Nordic countries apart (Sörlin 2024). Yet, just as elsewhere, interest in climate history has waxed and waned over time in accordance with perceived risks. The traditional entanglement of climate and society that characterised earlier natural histories fragmented during the nineteenth century with the proliferation of specialised academic disciplines. Attempts in the early twentieth century to enlist climate for the legitimation of colonialism and racism discredited the field for decades. Only during the 1970s did an integrated study of ‘historical climatology’ start to reemerge, building on the availability of new datasets. However, it was not until the current climate change became pressingly obvious, that the dispersed research communities of geographers, historians, archaeologists and other social and natural scientists once again galvanised into a coherent field.
Nordic Climate Histories. Impacts, Pathways, Narratives, 2025
In this study, I have made use of agricultural and meteorological data from late eighteenth-centu... more In this study, I have made use of agricultural and meteorological data from late eighteenth-century pastor Wilse in Spydeberg, southeastern Norway, to analyse the impact of climate extremes on a premodern farming society. His farm records from the 1770s are used to improve an existing GDD model and then tested, by using his measured weather data, on the warm and cold summers of 1783 and 1784 respectively. The improved GDD model demonstrates that the 1784 climate anomaly had the potential to severely affect the crops. Contemporary accounts from other parts of southeastern Norway support the model result by reporting widespread harvest failures. Even though Norway is particularly susceptible to climate variations, the importance of climate extremes for these events has been little discussed among Norwegian historians. However, an integrated approach can be used to move beyond mere correlation between climate and human proxies towards some level of causation and contribute with new insights on the role of climatic stress for sociopolitical changes in the past.
Viking special volume, 2025
The Fimbulwinter hypothesis refers to the idea of a sudden 6 th-century climate crisis heavily af... more The Fimbulwinter hypothesis refers to the idea of a sudden 6 th-century climate crisis heavily affecting Scandinavian societies, causing widespread depopulation and societal upheaval. However, a critical examination of the climatic, paleo-botanical, and archaeological data reveals a complex pattern of different regional trajectories that contest the idea of a uniform crisis. In this paper I present a novel socionatural approach that might progress our understanding of the 6 th century and bridge between ideas of crisis and continuity. Central to my approach is the need to integrate human and environmental datasets and explore their interrelationship, in which «vulnerability» becomes a vital analytical tool. By the help of GIS analyses of cereal growth conditions, vegetation records, and archaeological data, I argue that disaster impact is likely to have varied between and within regions, thus opening for considerable diversity in social consequences.
Viking, 2023
Hundorp is considered one of the most important Viking Age sites in inland Eastern Norway. Howeve... more Hundorp is considered one of the most important Viking Age sites in inland Eastern Norway. However, our knowledge of the site is blurred by a mix of fact, fiction, and folklore, and little is known regarding its development and role in the overall power dynamics of the time. In this article, we present a whole new body of antiquarian, geophysical, and archaeological proxies, including the latest pagan burial documented so far in the region, and discuss its relevance in the wider socio-political picture. We argue that its role as an assembly site might go back to the Roman Iron Age, and that monumental burials continued right up to Christianization in the early 11th century. As the site lacks rich finds assemblages, Hundorp contrasts other contemporary power centres, and may have held other functions that are best understood within a wider framework of trade and power relations in the Late Iron Age.
Climate of the Past, 2023
In the Northern Hemisphere, the mid-6th century
was one of the coldest periods of the last 2000 y... more In the Northern Hemisphere, the mid-6th century
was one of the coldest periods of the last 2000 years, which
was initiated by volcanic eruptions in 536 and 540 CE. Here,
we study the effect of this volcanic double event on the climate
and society in Scandinavia with a special focus on
southern Norway. Using an ensemble of Max Planck Institute
Earth system model transient simulations for 521–680 CE,
temperature, precipitation, and atmospheric circulation patterns
are analyzed. The simulated cooling magnitude is used
as input for a growing degree day (GDD) model setup for
three different study areas in southern Norway, representative
of typical meteorological and landscape conditions. Pollen
from bogs inside these study areas are analyzed at high resolution
(1–3 cm sample intervals) to give insights into the
validity of the GDD model setup with regard to the volcanic
climate impact on the regional scale and to link the different
data sets with the archeological records.
We find that after the 536 and 540 CE double event, a maximum
surface air cooling of up to 3.5 C during the mean
growing season is simulated regionally for southern Norway.
With a scenario cooling of 3 C, the GDD model indicates
crop failures were likely in our northernmost and western
study areas, while crops were more likely to mature in the
southeastern study area. These results are in agreement with
the pollen records from the respective areas. Archeological
excavations show, however, a more complex pattern for the
three areas with abandonment of farms and severe social impacts
but also a continuation of occupation or a mix of those.
Finally, we discuss the likely climatic and societal impacts
of the 536 and 540 CE volcanic double event by synthesizing
Bloomery ironmaking in Latvia: a comparative study of Iron Age and medieval technologies
Historical Metallurgy, 2020
The technology of bloomery iron production in Latvia is a little-studied topic. Only a few excava... more The technology of bloomery iron production in Latvia is a little-studied topic. Only a few excavations have been undertaken, mostly during the 1950s and 60s in connection with hydropower development along the river Daugava. Sources from archives and collections have been reviewed, re-studied and re-interpreted in the light of current knowledge, as part of the TechTrans research project. Visual studies have also been performed to clarify whether the slag was tapped, as previously interpreted, or whether production could be related to the more common slag-pit technology. Archaeometallurgical samples from four of the excavated sites have been analysed to obtain information on the technology, development, processes and the quality of production. The results of this study are set in the context of the technical development of bloomery practice in neighbouring regions to identify influences that may have affected the development of bloomery iron production in Latvia during the Iron Age and medieval period.
Ingen vei utenom. Arkeologiske utgravninger i knyttet til etablering av ny riksveg 3 og 25 i Løten og Elverum kommuner, Innlandet, 2020
Cooking pits constitute a fairly common find at excavation sites throughout Scandinavia, but are ... more Cooking pits constitute a fairly common find at excavation sites throughout Scandinavia, but are rarely analysed in their own right. In this article, we aim at discussing the long-term trajectories in the use of cooking pits in eastern Norway, by comparing large datasets of radiocarbon dates from the coastal region of Vestfold, the inland areas around Lake Mjøsa, and the major inland valleys of Gudbrandsdalen and Østerdalen. Our dataset consist of 987 radiocarbon dates, thus constituting the largest compilation of dates so far from cooking pits in Norway. Our analysis suggests a high degree of regionality involved, since the use of cooking pits emerges and peaks centuries earlier in the coastal region compared to the inland regions. While a significant and sudden decline can be observed in the inland regions around the mid-6th century, suggesting a connection to the AD536/540 climate events, the mid-6th century only represents the end-point of a long process of decline in the coastal region. Therefore, we argue that the decline must be analysed within a multi-causal framework, in
which these climate events might have been one of several instrumental factors.
Primitive tider, 2019
In this article, I have tried to discuss the Fimbulwinter theory in a research historical perspec... more In this article, I have tried to discuss the Fimbulwinter theory in a research historical perspective, in order to disentangle the premises presented by both advocates and critics alike. By and large, the current debate follows the contours of previous discourses on the 6th century transition, at the risk of entrenching the arguments within two defined and established perspectives: material change as a reflection of crisis, and, secondly, material change as an expression of cultural innovation. Neither of these perspectives is satisfactory, as they both run the risk of downplaying either, in the first case, long-term socio-cultural dynamics or, in the second case, environmental factors. In other words, an environmental perspective is inadequate as an analytical framework, since it is liable to provide simplified and deterministic interpretations of past societal change. The roots of environmental disasters must be studied from a social perspective, in which societal preconditions for vulnerability to hazards are analysed. Consequently, an integrated human-environmental approach must be developed, which takes into consideration the importance of both human and natural systems, and the interaction between them. There is, indeed, no contradiction between the two interpretative frameworks of crisis and a change of practice, as both perspectives are required for an in-depth understanding of the spatial and temporal complexity associated with the transition from the Early to the Late Iron Age. Considerable scientific potential might be obtained by employing a human-environmental approach, in which the 6th century transition is analysed at the interface of human and environmental systems, rather than within an explicit social or climatic interpretative framework.
Kulturhistorisk museum, Universitetet i Oslo Ullsokningen og Kjyru-Tap -Ny kunnskap om tjaeremila... more Kulturhistorisk museum, Universitetet i Oslo Ullsokningen og Kjyru-Tap -Ny kunnskap om tjaeremila i førreformatorisk tid «Ullsokningen og Kjyru-Tap: Steffensfølge og Fantepak» lyder det ene verset i en skjemtevise av Henrik Wergeland, hvor han skildrer de ulike bygdenes saertrekk på Øvre Romerike. Skjemtevisa er gjengitt i bygdeboka for Ullensaker, og er benyttet til å illustrere at kommunen var saerlig kjent for produksjon av tjaere, eller «kjyru», på Wergelands tid (Nesten 1927:392-393). Omstreiferne i Steffensfølget skal vi ikke gå naermere inn på her, men snarere hvordan tjaerebrenningen har preget kulturlandskapet på Ullensaker også i førreformatorisk tid. Utgravningsresultatene vi ønsker å presentere har i tillegg implikasjoner for forståelsen av tjaeremila som fenomen, og dermed konsekvenser for gjeldende praksis innenfor kulturminneforvaltningen på området.
Gone to smelt iron in Courland: technology transfer in the development of an early modern industry
Post-Medieval Archaeology, 2019
In the Duchy of Courland and Semigallia, corresponding to the southern and western parts of prese... more In the Duchy of Courland and Semigallia, corresponding to the southern and western parts of present-day Latvia, an iron industry based on blast-furnace technology, mainly using local bog iron ore, existed in the 17th and 18th centuries. Transfer of knowledge and skill through the recruitment of specialists from other countries of Europe was crucial to the development of this industry; technology was also re-exported to Russia and elsewhere. Recent archaeological and archaeometallurgical investigations supplement the written evidence, highlighting the specific local conditions that influenced the development of ferrous metalworking here in the early modern period.
Gård og utmark i Gudbrandsdalen - Arkeologiske undersøkelser i Fron 2011-2012, 2016
The E6 project Gudbrandsdalen started up during the
summer of 2011 as a direct consequence of the... more The E6 project Gudbrandsdalen started up during the
summer of 2011 as a direct consequence of the establishment
of the new E6 highway through the valley.
The project was in the beginning organised according
to seven different plan areas, with independent budgets
and project plans. This caused several challenges
for the implementation of the excavations, as it gave
little room for flexibility and scientific priorities. The
project was therefore reorganized during the winter
of 2011/2012 in cooperation with the Directorate for
Cultural Heritage, and a common budget and ditto
project plan were developed.
The excavations went on for two seasons, with
the most extensive research being done in 2012. In
2011, 78.8 weeks of work were used, while 226 weeks
were used in 2012. The reports and databases were
thereafter finished in January 2014. Sixty-four sites
were investigated in the three counties Sør-Fron,
Nord-Fron, and Sel. While several agricultural and
settlement sites were excavated in Sør-Fron, the charcoal
pits and pitfalls dominated in the northern parts
of the area. This is largely due to the placement of
the highway in the valley, which in northern parts
mostly goes through forests and steep hillsides, while
the southern part of the pathway is placed in agricultural
terrain. It has, however, some relevance for
the understanding of prehistoric use of the landscape.
This will be further analysed in the following chapters
in this book.
Gård og utmark i Gudbrandsdalen - Arkeologiske undersøkelser i Fron 2011-2012, 2016
Sixty-four sites were excavated in 2011 and 2012
by the E6 project Gudbrandsdalen. The most signi... more Sixty-four sites were excavated in 2011 and 2012
by the E6 project Gudbrandsdalen. The most significant
results are connected to Iron Age settlement
and cultivation and mediaeval charcoal production.
Twelve settlement and cultivation sites included a
large number of traces from prehistoric farming from
the Early Bronze Age to the Middle Ages, with a
clear concentration in the Roman Iron Age and the
Migration Period. A large majority of the 38 sites
with charcoal production were radiocarbon dated to
the High Middle Ages, while six pitfalls in the same
area were dated to the Iron Age.
Gård og utmark i Gudbrandsdalen - Arkeologiske undersøkelser i Fron 2011-2012, 2016
Public communication was given high priority during
the E6 project Gudbrandsdalen, and a lot of e... more Public communication was given high priority during
the E6 project Gudbrandsdalen, and a lot of effort
was therefore put into building up local networks with
media and community. Cooperation between the E6
project, Gudbrandsdalsmusea (an association of local
museums), and the project owner (the Norwegian
Public Roads Administration) was initiated. It served
as a fundament for the communication strategy
in 2012, and a small exhibition was created at the
storehouse at Dale-Gudbrand’s farm (the Pilgrim
Centre) in the historical part of Hundorp. The exhibition
presented the ongoing excavations and the
projected road-construction work to the audience,
and it became a natural starting point for interviews
with journalists and arranged tours to the archaeological
sites. Whether a public strategy is successful
is, however, dependent on the way you tell the stories
and to what extent the listener identifies with the
message told. Flooding has been a substantial part of
Gudbrandsdalen in both prehistoric and modern times
and was a subject of thorough study at the archaeological
sites. It was therefore also a subject of special
focus in our communication strategy. At Fryasletta,
a 22-metre-long and 3,5-metre-deep trench was dug
during the archaeological excavations at the site. The
section displayed a complex sequence of flooding,
cultivation, and settlement during thousands of years
and was used as a main attraction during visits from
the media, the local community, and the Directorate
for Cultural Heritage.
Gård og utmark i Gudbrandsdalen - Arkeologiske undersøkelser i Fron 2011-2012, 2016
Few archaeological excavations have previously been initiated in Gudbrandsdalen. During the late ... more Few archaeological excavations have previously been initiated in Gudbrandsdalen. During the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century, several writers described the monumental gravemounds at Hundorp, but the mounds were for unknown reasons left untouched by the early archaeologists of the nineteenth century. Much of our knowledge about the cultural history of the valley was therefore based upon stray finds and the distributions of prehistoric graves in the landscape. A few investigations were, however, conducted from the 1980s and onwards in Sør-Fron, Nord-Fron, and Sel municipalities, including a minor excavation at Hundorp in 2002.
The main scientific issues for the E6 project were the organisation of the prehistoric farm and the agricultural history of the area. It was considered to be of substantial importance to detect farm buildings and farmyards as well as various kinds of farm activities, such as traces of cultivation, clearance, fences, and roads. The numerous charcoal pits are important for understanding the iron production in the region and the overall use of the landscape and are therefore an important supplement to the understanding of the social developme
Gård og utmark i Gudbrandsdalen - Arkeologiske undersøkelser i Fron 2011-2012, 2016
The archaeological investigations in the mid part of Gudbrandsdalen in 2011 and 2012 revealed a n... more The archaeological investigations in the mid part of Gudbrandsdalen in 2011 and 2012 revealed a number of flood/avalanche horizons, of which «Forrskredet» (ca 350–200 BC), «Gammelofsen» (ca 50–1 BC), and «Merovingertidsofsen» (ca AD 600–800) were recognised as the major events at the investigated sites. Local topography and weather conditions (such as extreme weather events) and more long-term climatic trends were most likely the triggering factors for these events. During the time interval for Forrskredet, glaciers in Jotunheimen were in an advanced position, winter precipitation in mountains in western Norway (Jostedalsbreen) was relatively high, and summer temperatures in Scandinavia, as reconstructed from tree rings, were relatively high. Gammelofsen occurred during a period with relatively small glaciers in Jotunheimen as winter precipitation was increasing in western Norway and summer temperatures were rising in Scandinavia. During Merovingertidsofsen, glaciers in Jotunheimen were in an advanced position, winter precipitation was rapidly increasing in western Norway, and summer temperatures were relatively low in Scandinavia. The prehistoric flood and avalanche events in Gudbrandsdalen, such as the subsequent historic flood events, in particular «Storofsen» (1789) and «Storflaumen» (1860), certainly had a severe impact on settlement and farming.
Gård og utmark i Gudbrandsdalen - Arkeologiske undersøkelser i Fron 2011-2012, 2016
The archaeological excavations in the lower valley slopes and edge of the floodplain to the river... more The archaeological excavations in the lower valley slopes and edge of the floodplain to the river Lågen exposed several layers deposited by floods and landslides, layers burying older archaeological structures and cultivation. The archaeological evidence was found on several levels separated by alluvial and colluvial sediments. The dating of the archaeological complexes therefore gives important timeframes for the dating of the incidents and suggests periods of considerable instability due to floods in the pre-Roman Iron Age (500–1 BC) and Merovingian period (AD 550–800). Three major incidents have been identified: Forrskredet (ca. 350–200 BC), Gammelofsen (ca. 50–1 BC) and Merovingertidsofsen (ca. AD 600–800).
The incidents are to a various degree found on a majority of the sites in the Fron municipalities, indicating regional catastrophes comparable to the well-known flood disaster Storofsen in 1789, which followed a five-year period with low summer temperatures and increasing glaciers in the high-mountain region. An almost tropical heat in the summer of 1789 combined with heavy rainfall caused a massive flood and numerous landslides in the valley slopes, severely damaging hundreds of farms in Gudbrandsdalen alone. Climate data show indications of similar situations in the Iron Age, which might have caused major floods.
Gård og utmark i Gudbrandsdalen - Arkeologiske undersøkelser i Fron 2011-2012, 2016
During the E6 project Gudbrandsdalen, nine agricultural sites and three Iron Age farmsteads were ... more During the E6 project Gudbrandsdalen, nine agricultural sites and three Iron Age farmsteads were excavated in Fron. The sites were located in the lower part of the valley, in an area prone to flooding from the river Lågen and landslides from the hillside. The archaeological finds were found in different stratigraphical layers, isolated from each other by sedimentary deposits. The oldest remains consisted of cultivation layers from the Bronze Age that had been sealed off by several floods in the pre-Roman Iron Age. In the Roman Iron Age and migration period, there is evidence of a long period of stability, with several new sites
including the three farmsteads followed by a general decline in the Merovingian period. The farmsteads were abandoned, and the cultivation layers show evidence of flooding. The sites are never fully recovered, though there is some evidence of sporadic activity in the following periods – mainly in the Middle Ages
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Articles by Ingar Mørkestøl Gundersen
was one of the coldest periods of the last 2000 years, which
was initiated by volcanic eruptions in 536 and 540 CE. Here,
we study the effect of this volcanic double event on the climate
and society in Scandinavia with a special focus on
southern Norway. Using an ensemble of Max Planck Institute
Earth system model transient simulations for 521–680 CE,
temperature, precipitation, and atmospheric circulation patterns
are analyzed. The simulated cooling magnitude is used
as input for a growing degree day (GDD) model setup for
three different study areas in southern Norway, representative
of typical meteorological and landscape conditions. Pollen
from bogs inside these study areas are analyzed at high resolution
(1–3 cm sample intervals) to give insights into the
validity of the GDD model setup with regard to the volcanic
climate impact on the regional scale and to link the different
data sets with the archeological records.
We find that after the 536 and 540 CE double event, a maximum
surface air cooling of up to 3.5 C during the mean
growing season is simulated regionally for southern Norway.
With a scenario cooling of 3 C, the GDD model indicates
crop failures were likely in our northernmost and western
study areas, while crops were more likely to mature in the
southeastern study area. These results are in agreement with
the pollen records from the respective areas. Archeological
excavations show, however, a more complex pattern for the
three areas with abandonment of farms and severe social impacts
but also a continuation of occupation or a mix of those.
Finally, we discuss the likely climatic and societal impacts
of the 536 and 540 CE volcanic double event by synthesizing
which these climate events might have been one of several instrumental factors.
summer of 2011 as a direct consequence of the establishment
of the new E6 highway through the valley.
The project was in the beginning organised according
to seven different plan areas, with independent budgets
and project plans. This caused several challenges
for the implementation of the excavations, as it gave
little room for flexibility and scientific priorities. The
project was therefore reorganized during the winter
of 2011/2012 in cooperation with the Directorate for
Cultural Heritage, and a common budget and ditto
project plan were developed.
The excavations went on for two seasons, with
the most extensive research being done in 2012. In
2011, 78.8 weeks of work were used, while 226 weeks
were used in 2012. The reports and databases were
thereafter finished in January 2014. Sixty-four sites
were investigated in the three counties Sør-Fron,
Nord-Fron, and Sel. While several agricultural and
settlement sites were excavated in Sør-Fron, the charcoal
pits and pitfalls dominated in the northern parts
of the area. This is largely due to the placement of
the highway in the valley, which in northern parts
mostly goes through forests and steep hillsides, while
the southern part of the pathway is placed in agricultural
terrain. It has, however, some relevance for
the understanding of prehistoric use of the landscape.
This will be further analysed in the following chapters
in this book.
by the E6 project Gudbrandsdalen. The most significant
results are connected to Iron Age settlement
and cultivation and mediaeval charcoal production.
Twelve settlement and cultivation sites included a
large number of traces from prehistoric farming from
the Early Bronze Age to the Middle Ages, with a
clear concentration in the Roman Iron Age and the
Migration Period. A large majority of the 38 sites
with charcoal production were radiocarbon dated to
the High Middle Ages, while six pitfalls in the same
area were dated to the Iron Age.
the E6 project Gudbrandsdalen, and a lot of effort
was therefore put into building up local networks with
media and community. Cooperation between the E6
project, Gudbrandsdalsmusea (an association of local
museums), and the project owner (the Norwegian
Public Roads Administration) was initiated. It served
as a fundament for the communication strategy
in 2012, and a small exhibition was created at the
storehouse at Dale-Gudbrand’s farm (the Pilgrim
Centre) in the historical part of Hundorp. The exhibition
presented the ongoing excavations and the
projected road-construction work to the audience,
and it became a natural starting point for interviews
with journalists and arranged tours to the archaeological
sites. Whether a public strategy is successful
is, however, dependent on the way you tell the stories
and to what extent the listener identifies with the
message told. Flooding has been a substantial part of
Gudbrandsdalen in both prehistoric and modern times
and was a subject of thorough study at the archaeological
sites. It was therefore also a subject of special
focus in our communication strategy. At Fryasletta,
a 22-metre-long and 3,5-metre-deep trench was dug
during the archaeological excavations at the site. The
section displayed a complex sequence of flooding,
cultivation, and settlement during thousands of years
and was used as a main attraction during visits from
the media, the local community, and the Directorate
for Cultural Heritage.
The main scientific issues for the E6 project were the organisation of the prehistoric farm and the agricultural history of the area. It was considered to be of substantial importance to detect farm buildings and farmyards as well as various kinds of farm activities, such as traces of cultivation, clearance, fences, and roads. The numerous charcoal pits are important for understanding the iron production in the region and the overall use of the landscape and are therefore an important supplement to the understanding of the social developme
The incidents are to a various degree found on a majority of the sites in the Fron municipalities, indicating regional catastrophes comparable to the well-known flood disaster Storofsen in 1789, which followed a five-year period with low summer temperatures and increasing glaciers in the high-mountain region. An almost tropical heat in the summer of 1789 combined with heavy rainfall caused a massive flood and numerous landslides in the valley slopes, severely damaging hundreds of farms in Gudbrandsdalen alone. Climate data show indications of similar situations in the Iron Age, which might have caused major floods.
including the three farmsteads followed by a general decline in the Merovingian period. The farmsteads were abandoned, and the cultivation layers show evidence of flooding. The sites are never fully recovered, though there is some evidence of sporadic activity in the following periods – mainly in the Middle Ages