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Maud Devolder

Ghent University, Archaeology, Faculty Member

Ecole française d'Athènes, Section des études antiques et byzantines, Associate Researcher

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Address: Ghent University
Department of Archaeology
Sint-Pietersnieuwstraat 35
B-9000 Gent - Belgium
https://www.daedalos.ugent.be/

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Papers by Maud Devolder

Molluscan Remains as Indirect Proxy for Identifying Disintegrated Mudbricks in Aegean Bronze Age Archaeological Contexts

by Rena Veropoulidou and Maud Devolder

Environmental Archaeology, 2024

The highly perishable nature of earthen architecture in the Bronze Age Aegean, where walls were l... more The highly perishable nature of earthen architecture in the Bronze Age Aegean, where walls were largely built of sundried mudbricks set on a stone socle, has hindered an accurate perception of buildings in this period and region. The recent proliferation of research on mudbricks is slowly recognising their systematic use in construction, but primary evidence is still difficult to collect. Here, we explore the potential of marine shells to generate data for the reconstruction of architecture in the Bronze Age Aegean, especially on Crete. We argue that tiny molluscan shells were inadvertently incorporated along the seagrasses used as vegetal temper in the mudbricks matrix. Seagrasses offer an ideal environment for specific molluscan taxa; the latter are considered by geological and archaeomalacological studies as indirect indicators for marine plants in the fossil and in the archaeological record respectively. Relying on archaeomalacological material from Early and Middle Bronze Age (3rd and early 2nd millennium BCE) contexts in the Minoan settlement at Malia and setting it in perspective against broader ethnographic, historical and archaeological evidence, the aim of this paper is to showcase the potential of specific molluscan taxa to serve as an indirect proxy for identifying the presence of disintegrated mudbrick walls.

From the Ground Up: Earth in Minoan Construction. The Case of Building 5 at Palaikastro, Aegean Archaeology 8 (2005-2006), p. 65-80.

The violent destruction by fire of Building 5 at Palaikastro, Crete, provided an interesting and ... more The violent destruction by fire of Building 5 at Palaikastro, Crete, provided an interesting and varied collection of well-preserved fired-earth elements. Those include fragments of mudbricks, mud coatings, roofs/ceilings, doorjambs, and other samples which bear impressions of wooden elements, probably from installations made of a combination of earth and wood. The publication of a selection of the samples has two purposes. The first is to offer a typological description of the earthen features in order to elucidate their various functions and their importance in Minoan architecture. Thus considered, the fragments described illustrate particular construction techniques and help reconstructing the original appearance of the building. The second purpose of this study is to consider the knowledge Minoan builders had of materials and techniques involved in earthen architecture. This study may allow some insights into the status of the practitioners of architecture and the degree of involvement of inhabitants or of specialists in construction.

"Minoan Master Builders? A Diachronic Study of Mudbrick Architecture in the Bronze Age Palace at Malia (Crete)", BCH 143.1 (2019), p. 63-123. FULL ACCESS: https://journals.openedition.org/bch/718

by Maud Devolder and Marta Lorenzon

This paper investigates sun-dried mudbrick architecture in the Minoan Palace at Malia on the nort... more This paper investigates sun-dried mudbrick architecture in the Minoan Palace at Malia on the north coast of Crete (Greece), excavated and studied by the French School at Athens since the beginning of the 20th century. Macroscopic study of the standing architectural remains is combined with geochemical (pXRF and XRD) and petrographic analyses of a selection of mudbrick samples in order to explore patterns and variations in bricklaying, mudbrick recipes, manufacturing practices and mudbrick performance throughout the Pre-, Proto- and Neopalatial periods (2450-1430 BCE). The microscopic composition of the mudbricks highlights the consistent procurement of local raw materials, despite marked differences in macroscopic composition related to varying manufacturing processes that impacted mudbrick performance. This diversity is important enough to indicate the completion of the Neopalatial building project by separate teams of builders, whose skills seem to have varied markedly. The participation in the Neopalatial building project of specialised mudbrick ‘master’ builders is attested but the workforce was also drawn from the site’s inhabitants who had the requisite knowledge to produce standing, though significantly less-well performing, mudbrick walls.

Leaving No Ashlar Unturned: Definitions, Technical Features and Regional Synopsis of Cut-Stone Masonry in the Eastern Mediterranean Bronze Age

by Igor Kreimerman and Maud Devolder

Ashlar: Exploring the Materiality of Cut-Stone Masonry in the Eastern Mediterranean Bronze Age, 2020

Cut-stone masonry is one of the most prominent features that characterizes monumental architectur... more Cut-stone masonry is one of the most prominent features that characterizes monumental architecture, the appearance of which is imbued with symbolic meaning and is a corollary to wholesale changes in the societies of the Bronze Age Eastern Mediterranean. The workshop held in Louvain-la-Neuve on the 8th and 9th of March 2018 aimed at exploring the specificities of building practices incorporating cut-stone masonry or components in Egypt, Syria, the Aegean, Anatolia, Cyprus, and the Levant in the 3rd and 2nd millennium BC. Specialists of the different regions of the Eastern Mediterranean discussed topics including the structural and formal features of standing architectural remains, extraction and shaping methods, tool kits, the visual effect of ashlar use and the symbolic impact of its abandonment.
Before letting the reader enter the core of the volume and explore the range of approaches to ashlar offered by contributors specialized in different geographical areas and sites, it bears upon the editors to provide a terminological and contextual framework in this introductory chapter. Characterizing the forms, techniques and building processes associated with cut-stone masonry in the Eastern Mediterranean Bronze Age is a daunting task. Data are spread over an extensive geographical and chronological context – the latter often debated – and the description of ashlar components and masonries is often provided with varying degrees of details and a loose terminology. The purpose of this introductory chapter is to provide a reminder of the terminology of cut-stone building components and masonry, to describe the specific techniques related to its production, and to provide a synopsis of ashlar use in the different regions of the Eastern Mediterranean Bronze Age. This regional synopsis is followed by a presentation of the challenges addressed during the workshop, and which fashioned the research questions addressed in the different, focused, contributions to this volume. These and the present introductory chapter address the research questions through varying case studies, datasets and methodologies, thus providing an in-depth understanding of the use of ashlar in the different regions of the Eastern Mediterranean in the 3rd and 2nd millennium BC, and providing a sound basis for discussion and comparison pertaining to this elaborate building technique.

"Étude des coutumes funéraires en Crète néopalatiale" [EXPLORING THE CRETAN NEOPALATIAL FUNERARY RECORD], Bulletin de Correspondance Hellénique 134.1 (2010), p. 31-70.

Bulletin de Correspondance Hellénique 134.1 2010 (published in 2012)

The poverty of the Neopalatial funerary record (ca. 1650/1640 - 1440/1430 BCE) is explored, for w... more The poverty of the Neopalatial funerary record (ca. 1650/1640 - 1440/1430 BCE) is explored, for which both natural and cultural factors are considered. The exposure of corpses to the elements or their simple deposition in natural cavities seems to be the reason for their rarity in the Neopalatial archaeological landscape. It can also be related to ancient Cretan practices, and it is suggested that, during the Neopalatial period, the palaces and the sites under their control form an alternative ritual context better suited to the needs of the population, thus causing a decreasing interest in social gatherings organised at the community cemeteries. This would go some way toward explaining the marked lack of interest in earlier, Pre- and Protopalatial, monumental funerary sites. Despite the poverty of the Neopalatial funerary archaeological record, the relevant information is here investigated in detail: diversity of the funerary contexts (caves and rock-shelters, circular tombs, ‘house tombs’, chamber tombs, and pithoi), continuing use of Pre- and Protopalatial tombs, and ritual practices. The diversity of the funerary sites is stressed, together with their material content and the small-scale ritual practices of which they were the focus, which stands as the most convincing explanation for the scarcity of Neopalatial tombs. In addition to exploring the cultural motivations for this scarcity, alternative modes of treatment of the corpses are investigated. Stemming from a chapter of my PhD, this paper explores how the decreasing interest for lasting forms of depositions of the corpses might be related to the control of alternative forms of social gatherings by the palatial sphere.

Résumé - Est envisagée ici la pauvreté du corpus funéraire néopalatial (1650/1640 - 1440/1430 av.J.-C.), en même temps que les différents facteurs, naturels et culturels, susceptibles d’en être la cause. On suggère l’exposition des corps ou leur dépôt sommaire dans des cavités naturelles, dans le prolongement de pratiques crétoises anciennes, à l’origine de leur rareté dans le paysage archéologique au Néopalatial. La sphère palatiale semble désormais offrir un cadre rituel plus adapté aux besoins de la population et participe au désintérêt pour des cadres funéraires monumentaux caractéristiques des époques pré- et protopalatiale. Parallèlement à la pauvreté du corpus, les pratiques funéraires néanmoins identifiées sont explorées. On met en exergue la diversité des cadres funéraires, leur contenu matériel et les pratiques rituelles dont ils faisaient l’objet.

Le site de Malia au Pré- et au Protopalatial [MALIA IN THE PREPALATIAL AND PROTOPALATIAL PERIODS]

IN Devolder M. and I. Caloi (with coll.) "Le Bâtiment Dessenne et les abords Sud-Ouest du palais dans l’établissement pré- et protopalatial de Malia", 2019

Le Bâtiment Dessenne et les abords Sud-Ouest du palais dans l’établissement pré- et protopalatial de Malia: Essai de synthèse (The Dessenne Building and the area to the South-West of the Palace at Malia in the Prepalatial and Protopalatial periods: A synthesis)

The Functions of Masons' Marks in the Bronze Age Palace at Malia (Crete), American Journal of Archaeology 122.3 (2018), p. 343-365.

The function of a large number of distinctive signs, usually called masons’ marks, carved on cut-... more The function of a large number of distinctive signs, usually called masons’ marks, carved on cut- stone blocks found in Minoan or Bronze Age buildings on the island of Crete remains a debated topic. Interpretations have varied from a simple practical use, aiding the builders in positioning the blocks, to a magical or religious function. In view of the constantly expanding corpus, this article considers the use of the marks visible in the walls of the Neopalatial palace at Malia (ca. 1700–1450 B.C.E.). Topics explored include the characteristics of the marks and the blocks on which they are carved, the phases of the construction process during which the carving occurred, the proportion of marked blocks in the building, and the distribution of the marks in relation to the organization of the building project. A case is made for the largely secular function of the marks that reflects different tasks during the construction project. They are most likely identifiers for the masons involved in quarrying the blocks and the builders in charge of the construction and final trimming of some of the best executed walls of the palace.

Recherches en cours sur la séquence chronologique au Palais de Malia (2022) [Ongoing research on the chronological sequence of the Malia Palace (2022)] OPEN ACCESS

by Maud Devolder, Ilaria Caloi, and Iro Mathioudaki

BAEFE, 2023

The two study campaigns carried out in 2022 as part of the study and publication project for the ... more The two study campaigns carried out in 2022 as part of the study and publication project for the Palace of Malia focused on the one hand on the study of the ceramic material and the stratigraphic data associated with the Neopalatial sequence of occupation within the building (excavations and soundings 1915-1992), and on the other hand on the finalisation of the study linked to the final publication of the material and data from the excavations and soundings in the rooms to the north of the central court of the Palace (1923-1992).
Les deux campagnes d’étude menées en 2022 dans le cadre du projet d’étude et de publication du Palais de Malia se sont concentrées d’une part sur l’étude du matériel céramique et des données stratigraphiques associés à la séquence de l’occupation néopalatiale au sein de l’édifice (fouilles et sondages 1915-1992), et d’autre part sur la finalisation de l’étude liée à la publication finale du matériel et des données issues des fouilles et sondages dans les pièces au Nord de la cour centrale du Palais (1923-1992).

The Protopalatial State of the Western Magazines of the Palace at Malia (Crete), Oxford Journal of Archaeology 35.2 (2016), p. 141-159.

The evidence available for the reconstruction of the Western Magazines of the early palace at Mal... more The evidence available for the reconstruction of the Western Magazines of the early palace at Malia is here re-evaluated. Despite the importance given to external social agents stationed in the Protopalatial town outside the palace, our knowledge of the main building during this key period in the history of the settlement remains limited. The shallow stratigraphy associated with its construction and heavy rebuilding during the succeeding Neopalatial period obstruct a clear vision of the architectural phasing of the early building, but a new analysis focusing on building materials and techniques suggests the presence of a series of Protopalatial storage rooms behind the main façade on the West Court, later integrated into the Neopalatial building. This architectural analysis allows a better assessment of the role of the central building of Middle Bronze Age Malia.

"The Dungeon. Recalling the West Façade of the Protopalatial Palace at Malia", in Borgna E., I. Caloi, F. Carinci and R. Laffineur (eds), MNEME. Proceeding of the 17th International Aegean Conference held in Venice and Udine, 17-21 April 2018, p. 41-48

The Minoan Palace at Malia reflects two main architectural phases, Proto- and Neopalatial. A firs... more The Minoan Palace at Malia reflects two main architectural phases, Proto- and Neopalatial. A first, Protopalatial building is erected at the onset of the second millennium BC (ca. 1900-1700 BC), and after a conflagration perhaps triggered by an earthquake around 1700 BC, the Neopalatial complex is built (ca. 1700-1450 BC). The ruin now visible is an intricate weave of both periods. This is for a large part because the Neopalatial builders saved both time and energy by reusing previous architectural materials or spolia. But the incorporation of Protopalatial remains into the new complex also reflects the desire to promote continuity within the long-standing monument. The limestone façade wall facing the North-West Court of the Palace is especially significant in this regard. Constructed with large boulders of grey blue limestone, it contrasts sharply with the yellowish background of cut sandstone walls erected during the Neopalatial period. This striking difference in masonry did not escape the excavators of the Palace: the sturdy look of the wall in comparison with the elaborate ashlar masonry prompted the name of ‘Dungeon’ for the rooms it bordered, and it was suggested that it belonged to the first, Protopalatial complex. A new architectural study of the Palace is now able to show that, even though the excavators were not entirely wrong, the story of the ‘Dungeon’ is significantly more complex and challenging than initially surmised. In this paper, I argue that the façade of the ‘Dungeon’ was erected during the Neopalatial period by reusing materials from the West façade of the Protopalatial Palace. I also argue that the new wall was constructed in masonry of grey blue boulders which specifically imitated the Protopalatial West façade in order to serve as a mnemonic device. The sharp contrast created by the ‘Dungeon’ with its built environment is seen as a deliberate attempt to single out its architectural legacy within the Neopalatial complex and to boost the visual impact it made on the users of the Palace crossing the North-West Court in order to reach the elaborate Quartier d’apparat. New architectural data in the Palace at Malia thus underline the fact that, despite the thorough reconstruction of the building after the 1700 BC destruction, special care was taken in promoting its continuity through the erection within the Neopalatial complex of walls that mirrored its Protopalatial grandeur.

Maud Devolder, “Éléments structurels en bois dans un palais de l’âge du Bronze crétois. Le cas de la Cour Nord du palais de Malia”, PALLAS – Revue d’études antiques 111 (2019), p. 133-149. [“Wooden structural elements in a Bronze Age Cretan palace. The North Court of the palace at Malia”]

In this paper, we investigate the features of a wooden structure inserted within the cut sandston... more In this paper, we investigate the features of a wooden structure inserted within the cut sandstone walls erected at the beginning of the Neopalatial period around the North Court of the Palace at Malia. This analysis reflects the close association between the wooden doorjambs that framed the accesses towards the rooms surrounding the court, the wooden structure integrated within the walls, and elements related to the roofing of the court’s portico. The structural unity of the North Court is further enhanced by the unity of its architectural style, and by the originality of its masonry in regard with those used in other areas of the Malia palace. The features of the walls that surround the portico of the North Court thus reflect the care taken by the masons in creating a harmonious and structurally efficient architectural unit. They also recall building practices not unsimilar to those that shaped some of the walls of the palace at Knossos and may suggest the same builders worked in the two palaces.

Cet article analyse en détails les traces relatives à la présence d’une structure en bois insérée dans les murs principalement érigés en pierre de taille autour de la Cour Nord du palais de Malia au début de la période néopalatiale. Cette analyse reflète l’association étroite entre les jambages qui encadraient les portes d’accès vers les pièces autour de la cour, la structure en bois insérée dans les murs, et les éléments liés au couvrement du portique bordant la cour. L’unité structurelle de l’ensemble est encore renforcée par l’uniformité de son apparence architecturale, et par l’originalité de la maçonnerie au sein du palais de Malia. Les traits des murs bordant le portique de la Cour Nord reflètent ainsi le soin apporté par des constructeurs apparemment soucieux de l’efficacité structurelle et de l’harmonie de l’ensemble, des bâtisseurs dont il n’est pas exclu qu’ils aient également travaillé au palais de Knossos.

Maud Devolder, "Architectural Energetics and Late Bronze Age Cretan Architecture. Measuring the Scale of Minoan Building Projects"

Issues such as the assessment of the scale of Minoan building projects, their impact on the commu... more Issues such as the assessment of the scale of Minoan building projects, their impact on the communities, or the role of the labour-time generated by the construction of various masonries on the choices made by the builders often seem too far-fetched to be tackled by archaeologists. By taking a materialistic stance, the present paper offers to explore some of the parameters at play in the production of Minoan architecture.

Manpower and Neopalatial Architecture. The Architectural Project as a Meaningful Experience. In S. Cappel, U. Günkel-Maschek and D. Panagiotopoulos, Minoan Archaeology. Perspectives for the 21st Century, AEGIS 8, Louvain-la-Neuve, 2015, p. 241-252.

The built environment of Neopalatial Crete is considered here through the manpower implicated in ... more The built environment of Neopalatial Crete is considered here through the manpower implicated in its production.
This approach is based on a quantitative method of estimating the time needed to build a structure. It relies on
standard costs empirically established through experiments, observations and accounts of large building sites. The
volumes of materials of a selection of Neopalatial buildings which offer a suficient degree of architectural precision
are estimated, to which standard costs are hence applied. Based on such application, the strong polarisation
between the costs of Neopalatial simple and complex buildings is obvious, but more pertinently the relationship
between the potential workforce and the costs of simple or vernacular architecture reafirms the involvement of the
inhabitants in the construction of their own homes. This state ment makes it possible to explore the size of a Neopalatial social unit associated with vernacular architecture. Complex or “polite” architecture shows a drastically different scheme. In this case, the manpower needed by far exceeds the capacity of the residents to provide the re quired workforce. Rather, it indicates the privileged access of the commissioners to resources, both human and agricultural. They were able to mobilise many workers, amongst whom were specia lists, thus relying on a totally different kind of workforce, both in terms of availability and nature.

Labour Costs and Neopalatial Architecture. A Study of the Buildings at Klimataria-Manares and Achladia and the Palace at Gournia

Minoan Realities. Theory-based Approaches to Images and Built Spaces as Indicators of Minoan Social Structures (AEGIS, 5), ed. by D. PANAGIOTOPOULOS et U. GÜKEL-MASCHEK, 2012

Beyond the description of the physical traits of Minoan architecture and their role in the classi... more Beyond the description of the physical traits of Minoan architecture and their role in the classification of buildings into distinct categories, this essay explores a quantitative approach to Minoan architecture, based on a study of the labour costs generated by the erection of a series of buildings. This approach, sometimes dubbed ‘architectural energetics’, offers a series of estimates of the time necessary to accomplish the diverse architectural tasks involved in building an edifice. The clearing and levelling of buildings sites, the supply of materials – whether through collection or extraction –, their transport and finishing, the erection of walls and the making of ceilings and roofs can be studied according to the time necessary for their completion, which is usually expressed in man-hours (henceforth m-h). In this study, I first detail some of the specificities of the method and then focus on the implication for Neopalatial architecture, by studying three specific cases. The specific purpose of this paper is to highlight the insights offered by such a quantitative approach for the built form and the factors at play during its production. I especially focus here on the material and technical choices of the builders, on the setting of the costs into the historical context, and on the workforce involved in the building project.

Hâte-toi de bâtir la demeure, hâte-toi d'édifier le palais

This paper examines the potential of a specific approach to the relation between architecture and... more This paper examines the potential of a specific approach to the relation between architecture and society, the estimation of the construction ‘costs’ (expressed in man-days) of particular buildings. This kind of architectural approach is based on the principle that a quantitative estimation of the construction process of a building produced by a society necessarily reflects this society, allowing new insights. The principles are here applied to the Minoan palace at Gournia on Crete. An examination of the time devoted to the construction of the palace leads to interesting possibilities where the phasing of the edifice and its relation with its built environment, the town, are concerned as well the social and historical context in which the central building was initially constructed, used and transformed. In this peculiar case, the construction ‘costs’ of the palace of Gournia show a very distinct amount of energy invested in LM IA and in LM IB, together with a growing differentiation in the domestic architecture in the town. Several scenarios are suggested to explain these radical changes, involving the economic situation of the town, its construction and mobilisation force.

Investment and Prestige at Neopalatial Knossos

New technologies for capturing the dynamics of cultural landscapes

by Apostolos Sarris, Gianluca Cantoro, Sylviane Déderix, Christina Tsigonaki, Maud Devolder, and A. Agapiou

Archaeological Work Crete, 2015

New Technologies for Capturing the Dynamics of Cultural Landscapes

by Apostolos Sarris, Maud Devolder, Gianluca Cantoro, and Sylviane Déderix

Ergo Kritis, Proceedings

The scientific and scholarly study concerned with the search for material traces of the past comp... more The scientific and scholarly study concerned with the search for material traces of the past comprise a significant level towards the cultural heritage management and preservation. Ground based and satellite/aerial technologies can be utilized for capturing both the dynamics and the evolution of the cultural landscapes creating a digital archive for the management of cultural resources. The research directive that has been initiated by FORTH and is under the auspices of various cultural and research foundations aims towards the establishment of a best practice guide for the application of geo-information technologies for the study, management and preservation cultural landscapes. In the archaeological site of Malia”, conventional photogrammetric and laser scanning techniques have been carried out in collaboration with the French School of Athens, in order to provide a 3D model of the “Magasins Dessenne” area which have subsequently been backfilled for conservation reasons . The different approaches have provided a realistic orthorectified model that can be used for the further studies of the monuments of the particular section of the site. In “Eleftherna”, on the hill of “Pyrgi”, the focus has been to map the aqueduct of the ancient town through the application of electrical resistivity tomography. The continuation of the water tunnel which lies 8m below the surface towards the south where two large water reservoirs have been cut into the rock was examined through a high resolution three-dimensional (3-D) Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT) method. Even though the data processing and interpretation with 3-D resistivity imaging/inversion algorithms reconstructed with significant detail the near surface features, it was unable to give further insight regarding the southern end of the water tunnel due to the limited resolution of the surface ERT and its inability to resolve the tunnel within the specific environmental regime. The particular controlled experiments set the foundation of a guide that will promote the optimal application of the particular techniques based on the current progress of the geo-information technologies and that will ultimately function as a road-guide for the archaeologists’ own usage.

Rapport sur les travaux de l’École française d’Athènes en 2014-2015. Malia. Le Palais

On considère généralement qu’il ne reste que peu de vestiges du ‘Premier Palais’ ou palais protop... more On considère généralement qu’il ne reste que peu de vestiges du ‘Premier Palais’ ou palais protopalatial de Malia après sa destruction vers 1700 av. J.-C. et sa reconstruction au Néopalatial (1700-1430 av. J.-C.). La reprise de l’étude architecturale de l’édifice a cependant montré qu’il était possible de restituer une partie significative du palais protopalatial sur la base de l’observation détaillée des murs et de l’identification des matériaux et techniques de construction utilisés par les bâtisseurs au cours des différentes phases de l’Âge du Bronze.