Landcape architecture

Since the world summit on sustainable development in Johannesburg, discussion on eco-industrial parks has started in several industrialised countries and many initiatives occurred to establish eco-industrial parks or to transform existing industrial parks. Originally, eco-industrial parks were mainly based upon the exchange of resources among industrial complexes. These initiatives are generally referred to with the concepts of industrial symbiosis. After this initial period, the concept of eco-industrial parks has been extended to another type of industrial park, the so-called mixed industrial park, which consists of various small and medium-sized enterprises some times complemented by a small number of larger industries. The significance of eco-industrial park initiatives needs a typology for clarifying the confusion. It is argued that mixed industrial parks are poorly investigated although they have a major environmental and spatial impact. Starting from a case study of a mixed eco-industrial park initiative, this paper describes the related societal and environmental problems and proposes solutions for the first stage of the transformation.

Soil erosion is an important economic and environmental concern throughout the world. Assess soil erosion risk in the watershed of Alqueva is urgently needed to conserve water resources and prevent the accelerated dam siltation, taking into account the possible land-use changes, due to tourism development, intensification of irrigated farming and biomass production, as well as climate change. This study is a primary step to assess soil erosion risk through the Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE) in a Geographic Information System (GIS). In this study we assessed soil erodibility factor (K) through the estimation of soil properties needed to estimate this factor. Soil erodibility is an important index to measure soil susceptibility to water erosion, and an essential parameter needed for soil erosion prediction. Graphical interpretation of soil properties was performed using ordinary kriging, and semi-variograms were produced for each property. Soil erodibility in study area is estimated to vary from 0.007 and 0.041 t ha h ha -1 MJ -1 mm -1 . There are high correlation between soil texture (sand and silt fraction), hydraulic conductivity and soil erodibility values. The results (provided in terms of prediction maps and their associated variance) can be used as a source of information for the development and implementation of any further land management and soil and water conservation plans in the study area.

Investigators of site design and planning projects are shifting their scholarly emphasis from the design of single case study projects and isolated objects towards focusing upon meta-studies by examining the design of larger urban surfaces and the results from many projects, thus increasing the understanding concerning the impact of such interventions. This meta-studies process facilitates building landscape architecture theory, providing a widely accepted theoretical framework based on specific design principles and norms from which might influence and guide practical development. The analysis of postindustrial land transformation case studies considering both design principles and strategies used in redevelopment, constitutes a relevant framework towards the definition of new design and planning normative theories. For this reason, this research, was based on the examination of 346 case studies across the globe, and a closer examination of six postindustrial case studies (Duisburg, Germany; Lisbon, Portugal; Amsterdam, Netherlands; Cleveland, Ohio, USA; Toronto, Canada; and Chicago, Illinois, USA), in order to build a normative theory based on a set of planning and design principles that might inform future post-industrial land transformation practice. Our study reveals 37 design and planning principles applied across the six case studies.

Soil salinity has become an important issue in agriculture. Water and soil salinity adversely affects the growth and the yield of most crop plants, which are highly salt-sensitive. The idea of grow special crops using saline soil and brackish or saltwater for irrigation can bring high areas into human or animal food production. It has been recognized the potential of some halophytes for desalinization of soils or use in salty soils and also its use as food crops. Some of them are consumed today in Europe as fresh or cooked gourmet foods. For consumption as fresh food those plants, which are highly perishable, need refrigeration from harvest till they reach consumers. Refrigeration needs energy consumption with consequent economical cost and damage for the environment. The objective of this work was to use efficiently the energy for preserving the quality of the halophytes Salicornia ramosissima and Sarcocornia perennis used for fresh salads. Fresh branch tips were stored at 1, 4 and 9ºC for up to 21 days. In both species, fresh tips were of good consumer acceptability for up to 14 days at 9ºC. At 1 and 4ºC fresh tips could be stored in good conditions up to 21 days. It is concluded from this work that both Salicornia ramosissima and Sarcocornia perennis are suitable for consumption as fresh, in salads, replacing the salt. For energy saving, if they are to be in the market for up to 7 days, they can be stored in the higher temperature 9ºC with good quality. For longer storage periods temperatures of 4 and 1ºC shall be used.

Soil erosion risk assessment at the watershed of Alqueva is urgently needed to conserve water resources and prevent the accelerated dam siltation. The variation of soil properties is one of the most important reasons for the spatial variability of vegetation cover and erosion. In order to achieve more and better management of rangelands around the largest reservoir of Europe, it is essential to evaluate how the soil properties as well plant cover in regard to the introduced change in distribution are estimated. Therefore, using geo-statistical techniques, this study was conducted to assess the relation of the spatial variability of soil erosion to soil properties. The statistical results showed that most variables had a normal distribution. Graphical interpretation of soil properties was performed using ordinary kriging. There were high correlation between vegetation cover, soil texture (sand and silt fraction), hydraulic conductivity and soil erodibility values. The lowest and the highest coefficient of variation were found with organic matter (2.17%) and vegetation cover (60.14%), respectively. The semi-variogram analysis showed that the effective range vary from 150m for silt to 20100m for the K of the soil, with optimal distance to determine erodibility the 1250m. The parameters of soil texture showed more spatial dependency than those of the organic matter. As a whole, the maps obtained by Kriging showed that the soil properties and spatial variability of vegetation cover did not have a random pattern and depended on the conditions of the region.

The relationships between the development of the A22 Via do Infante de Sagres highway in the Portuguese region of the Algarve, and the development of a contemporary landscape by using the Cultural Landscape Dynamics Interpretative Model are studied. The model evaluates the kind of development followed by contemporary landscapes based on transportation infrastructures in relation to contemporary cultural landscapes, which according to the theoretical approach of the work are based on the sustainable development principles. The presented model provides guidelines for future transportation infrastructure projects towards the development of contemporary cultural landscapes. In the Portuguese case study, the model is used to analyze the strengths and weaknesses of the contemporary landscape formed after the construction of the A22 highway.

Diversas regiões na Europa e nos Estados Unidos confrontam-se com perda de população e de atividade econômica. Enquanto há zonas que têm mantido, nos últimos anos, dinâmicas de atração de residentes, há outras, em oposição, que têm vindo, de forma persistente, a perder população. As causas e consequências dos fenômenos associados ao decréscimo da população têm vindo a ser objeto de estudos recentes.

This research integrates the Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE) with geostatistical techniques and a Geographic Information System (GIS) to model erosion
potential for soil conservation planning in Quercus suber agrosilvopastoral woodlands in the Algarve region of southern Portugal. Graphical interpretation of the RUSLE parameters was performed using ordinary kriging. Semi-variograms were produced for each parameter. The maps resulting from the interpolation techniques were introduced in a GIS and their values reclassified. After that, spatial modelling was used to develop the final overlay map from all the information of
the analyzed soil properties and RUSLE parameters, simulating ‘‘a potential soil erosion map.’’ Hydraulic conductivity and the soil erodibility K factor with a nugget-
o-sill ratio of 57% and 67%, respectively, showed the weakest spatial dependence, whereas organic matter demonstrated the strongest (31%). The maps created demonstrate the existence of a heavily textured area in the southern part of the site that could affect erosion and vegetation management techniques.
Hydraulic conductivity was higher than 6 cm=h in the northeastern part of the experimental area. The correlation between the spatially interpolated and observed values during the semi-variogram cross-validation, using the data set for method
development, was high (r2 > 0.81). The northwestern area was the most adequate for annual fodder cultivation. The most degraded and less suitable areas were in the southern part, with 108 t=ha potential erosion. Site-specific management methods
could improve productivity and decrease the risk of erosion. The present research shows that geostatistics and GIS are useful tools for sustainable management of extensive agrosilvopastoral areas.

Two forest species planted on spoil heaps in Ptolemaida, Pinus nigtz and Robinia pscwdoacacia, were studied. The productivity of both species was high. The majority of trees in the pine stand were vigorous and had good quality trunks. while most Rohinia trees suffered from strong competition from neighbouring trees and were forked in many branches. The addition of fly ash to spoil materials produced generally better growing conditions. Fourteen years after their establishment, the two stands had improved soil properties significantly more than had natural revegetation. Distinct surface, A, and C horizons formed under both stands. The contribution to landscape aesthetic improvement by the evergreen Pinus nigra was greater than that by the deciduous Robinia, also a desirable species because of its initial fast growth, intense sprouting and rapid nitrogen-enriching properties. The study suggests that afforestation with mixed stands of evergreen pine species and nitrogen-fixing trees is probably the best solution for successful rehabilitation.

Urban growth creates challenges recognized by the global community. Sustainable development is a widely accepted strategic framework in city planning and urban parks play an important role in it. Nonetheless, it is argued, that urban parks and other open green spaces are important for the quality of life of an increasingly urbanized society. Following the industrial revolution with its massive urbanisation in the 19th century and the explosive growth of urban areas and nature degradation throughout the 20th century, the alienation between people and nature was increased. The urban park movement had objective to increase life quality in the modern city. Sustainability and city regeneration strategies focus mainly on man-made and built components of the urban environment, although, in the last years is noticed an increasing interest for development of nature in cities. In order to exemplify the importance of urban parks for sustainability and the future of the city this paper analyses some emblematic projects that marked the urban park movement in their construction period -the Central Park, the Park Amsterdamse Bos, the Park André-Citröen and the City Park of Porto. The role that urban green space play in ecological, social and economic sustainability will be discussed and the case study of the new City Park of Portimão will address the importance of urban green spaces for life quality and sustainable city development.

A visual impact assessment is prepared when an expansion of existing quarries is proposed. The use of geographic information systems based, visualization techniques historically has been used to help communities understand and manage their resources. Understanding impacts of planning policy in mountainous areas is often lost in the twodimensional presentation. To facilitate this understanding new technologies, similar to that found in a flight simulator, were developed to help people visualize change. Three-dimensional imaging for characterization of quarry sites is beneficial in perceiving the whole picture and in making better and quicker decisions because of the higher capacity in visualization. The development of 3D images helped to minimize visual and other negative impacts of a quarry expansion project in Portugal.

Obtaining the public acceptance in a rehabilitation project is still considered a challenge. This can be accomplished by reducing the visual adverse impacts and incorporate aesthetic aspects in quarry rehabilitation projects. In visual impact assessment study, the primary functions were to identify key viewpoints from which the quarry will be visible. Techniques for assessing landscape quality, sensibility or fragility, considered increasingly important in landscape planning process, were developed and put into practice; in this respect, numerical values were used to assign factors such as slope, vegetation, observation distance, visual magnitude and human activities. Computerized visual simulations were used to illustrate the effect of quarry's development in the landscape as well as alternative design treatments. Digital landform profiles were projected, and an ecologically and aesthetically balanced combination of fill-in selected. Aiming in aesthetic appeal and fast visual impact minimization the plantation plan included native and non-native species. The results of the present study helped, both to achieve an executable and balanced project, as well as a public aesthetically accepted design. Nonetheless, it might be interesting to assume a broader aesthetic theory, which integrates both, ecological and scenic, aesthetics. The present study hypothesized the need of incorporating aesthetic values in landscape rehabilitation, and puts in evidence that visual impact assessment of a landscape in an objective and scientific manner is not difficult.

The decline of several industrial sectors in the last decades and the landscape left had a profound environmental, social, cultural and economic impact on the communities of which they are integral part. The 20 th century industrial landscapes are becoming obsolete, threatening to end their original productive social and economic roles in the communities where they belong. Those areas, currently consuming large tracts of land, underutilized, obsolete or abandoned, and located in areas characterized by low market demand for redevelopment, present a dramatic challenge to current and future generations. This phenomenon encompasses all categories of manufacturing in all parts of the world, although, the article will focus on urban industrial landscapes, where reclamation may represent an important role in city development by creating multifunctional sites. To exemplify the importance of those spaces in the urban landscape, this paper will analyze two industrial reclamation projects realized in Portugal during the last decade (Parque Tejo-Trancão-Expo 98 and Braga Stadium-Euro 2004), and an industrial landscape with a significant cultural and environmental value, where it is urgent to intervene (the old industrial landscape of the Arade valley). The significance of those projects to achieve a sustainable urban landscape is discussed. This article shows that the industrial landscape should be viewed as a resource and its recovery as an opportunity to develop new multi-functional landscapes.

Stream regularization and the use of rigid, inert construction materials in engineering projects are not adequate for sustainable planning and development. Biotechnical stream protection and erosion control is characterized by the conjunctive use of live vegetation with retaining structures and revetments. The present work explores some of the issues relating aesthetic ideals and values, with sustainability principles and reclamation measures in a stream line reclamation project. In developed societies aesthetics plays a relevant role in public acceptance of landscape interventions. The understanding of aesthetic aspects of landscape and the clarification of its relation to sustainable principles in a landscape reclamation project presents itself as a useful tool, resolving potential conflicts between ecology and sustainability principles and public perceptions and expectations. In stream development projects, between solutions that may harness natural processes, bioengineering is the key to managing long-term impacts and costs, relying on self-repair and adaptation, rather than external maintenance procedures. The solutions and techniques applied in the present reclamation approach might be interpreted in terms of social care and help to achieve ecologically richer and aesthetically pleasant landscapes. Stream reclamation is an ideal field where aesthetics and sustainability ought to be aligned, in order to overcome the human errors of the past and built a sustainable, but also beautiful landscape.

The emergence of knowledge-based economy and knowledge intensive business service has transformed the urban landscape during the past decades. As a response to this processes several industrial landscapes becoming obsolete, threatening to end their original productive, social and economic roles and facing the communities of which they are an integral part, with serious environmental and socio-economic problems. The need for greater environmental protection, the appearance of several derelict areas, the decreased availability of new lands for development and the increasing public awareness for derelict land reclamation provide great challenges not only for landscape professionals but also for urban planners, natural resource mangers and policy makers. It is widely recognized that the reclamation of post-industrial landscapes plays an important role in city's development, not only economically but also environmentally. In Portugal those projects has been developed in association with major events like Expo 98 and Euro Cup 2004 -using state and European Community funds to carry out the urban regeneration programs. To exemplify the importance of the reclamation of derelict industrial areas, this paper presents two projects realized in Portugal during the last decade (Park-Expo 98 and Braga Stadium-Euro 2004) and compares with the Brownfield reclamation project of the river Arade valley. The relevance of this reclamation project both culturally and environmentally is discussed and demonstrated by the realization of a strength, weaknesses, opportunities and threats (SWOT) analysis. The significance of Brownfield reclamation projects and sustainable urban planning is examined. Furthermore, the present work demonstrates that industrial landscapes should be viewed as a resource and its recovery as an opportunity to develop new multi-functional landscapes.

On a need of conception and management of ecological sustainability in urban places, arises the concept of "sustainable city", synonymous of modern times and development. Applying sustainable design stimulates urban ecology and induces social, economic and ecological quality of life of all citizens. The "deformalization" of an urban landscape, if it may be called, can happen as we introduce green areas. Amongst others, parks, and "green roofs" are some of the means to reach urban sustainability, since they make possible the incorporation of self-sufficient and regenerative natural processes. This report presents a proposal of a landscape intervention of two typologically different spaces of public utility. Both items of the study area, Public Park and Senior citizen's complex respond to a large number of requests that can be integrated on the urban environment and the renovation concerns of the underlying concept of sustainability development.

Two types of vegetation covers were compared to the common soil management techniques in olive culture areas to design, introduce, test and disseminate cover crops as ecological olive production systems. In the first vegetation cover, natural vegetation development was allowed until water competition arises, whilst weeds cover was enriched with a leguminous species, in the second. The common soil management techniques tested was ploughing and herbicides. Olive trees vegetative development and nutrients content were monitored. The potential for natural revegetation ability was evaluated. Organic matter, nutrients and water contents in the soil were also measured. Infiltration and erosion were estimated using the field-saturated hydraulic conductivity (Kfs) "Guelf permeameter" method and the revised universal soil loss equation (RUSLE). In order to understand the variation of some soil physical and chemical properties, graphical interpretation of these soil properties was done using geostatistics and geographic information systems.