This study examines the impact of digital transformation, driven by advances in artificial intell... more This study examines the impact of digital transformation, driven by advances in artificial intelligence (AI), on the global North-South divide. Unlike previous research that focuses on the U.S.-China rivalry, this study explores potential crises arising from disparities between the northern and southern hemispheres. The Fourth Industrial Revolution, characterized by AI and machine learning, has ushered in a digital economy, intensifying AI competition among major nations like the U.S. and China. This competition spans research, talent, infrastructure, and commercialization, with the U.S. leading in private investment and China in government-led initiatives. The study suggests that this rivalry could deepen the North-South divide, as advanced countries dominate AI development, sidelining the Global South. Nonetheless, the digital economy could offer growth opportunities for developing nations, enhancing their participation in global trade. The paper investigates how AI development affects the gap between developed and developing countries and explores global governance frameworks to address these disparities.
Since the 1990s, "identity" has become integral to international relations research, exploring su... more Since the 1990s, "identity" has become integral to international relations research, exploring subjects' selfdefinition and sense of belonging, alongside the attributes of collectives like nations and ethnicities. Originally theorized by Erik H. Erikson to describe self-constancy and unity, "identity" expanded in sociology and social psychology to include self-definition and group affiliation. This paper investigates the incorporation of identity into international relations, driven by critiques of the field's narrow scope amid the evolving global landscape since the late 1980s. It clarifies the complex concept of "identity" and its integration into international relations, highlighting oversights in current theories. The study proposes new analytical perspectives to enhance the concept's relevance in international relations, supported by empirical examples.
South Eastern European Journal of Public Health, 2025
In the past decade, human security has significantly shaped the principles and practices of the U... more In the past decade, human security has significantly shaped the principles and practices of the United Nations, governments, and NGOs. This paper examines human security as a "compound norm," integrating existing norms like peoplecentered development and human rights with new standards. This fusion addresses comprehensive issues from non-combatant safety during conflicts to hunger, human rights oppression, environmental degradation, and infectious diseases. The evolving concept highlights tensions between state security and a people-centered approach, and between national sovereignty and humanitarianism. Governance under human security often involves "compound global governance," engaging diverse actors such as governments, international organizations, NGOs, and corporations. Despite varying intensities across areas, these actors form partnerships to align their goals and practices with the aim of ensuring people's safety. This study analyzes the emerging governance characteristics within the human security framework, focusing on the adjustment of regimes and networks across various sectors.
China, as the world's second-largest economy, contrasts its economic power with the modest intern... more China, as the world's second-largest economy, contrasts its economic power with the modest international status of its currency, the renminbi (RMB). Despite the declining dominance of the U.S. dollar, the RMB lags behind the euro, pound sterling, and yen. The Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), launched in 2013, was anticipated to boost RMB internationalization through significant global infrastructure investments. Yet, a decade later, the RMB's global status remains limited. This study explores the BRI's impact on RMB internationalization, beginning from the post-2008 financial crisis period when efforts intensified. Utilizing recently collected comprehensive data, the research examines RMB flows domestically and internationally, finding minimal offshore net outflows. The study highlights China's strategic caution, balancing RMB inflow and outflow while prioritizing capital control, despite public rhetoric supporting RMB internationalization.
The ongoing Russia-Ukraine conflict, marked by Russia's military invasion, has now entered its se... more The ongoing Russia-Ukraine conflict, marked by Russia's military invasion, has now entered its second year, with no apparent resolution in sight. A notable aspect of this war is the active discourse and legal proceedings concerning war crimes, with both Russia and Ukraine accusing each other and prosecuting opposing soldiers. The international community is also engaged in addressing not only war crimes but also the legality of the conflict itself, utilizing various platforms such as the United Nations and the International Criminal Court (ICC). The ICC initiated an investigation shortly after the invasion and issued an arrest warrant for Russian President Vladimir Putin on war crimes charges. These developments reflect the strengthening of international humanitarian and human rights norms and underscore the heightened expectation for justice in the context of war crimes. Concurrently, discussions are underway regarding potential 'exit strategies' for a ceasefire. While some argue that war crime prosecutions might hinder ceasefire efforts, historical precedents suggest that such prosecutions can be integral to post-conflict stability. This paper explores the role of war crime prosecutions within exit strategies, positing that these prosecutions are crucial for the transition from military conflict to peace. By examining historical cases, such as the Nuremberg Tribunal and the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia, the paper aims to refine the concept of exit strategies and expand policy options by highlighting the strategic objectives shared between ending conflicts and establishing long-term peace.
This article investigates the growing use of robots and automation in military operations, emphas... more This article investigates the growing use of robots and automation in military operations, emphasizing the ethical challenges posed to international humanitarian law. The Iraq War marked a key shift, transforming robots from tools viewed skeptically to vital military assets. By 2006, robots had executed over 30,000 missions, and demand for unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) surged. These technologies span military branches, including the navy's use of unmanned submarines. The focus is on Lethal Autonomous Weapon Systems (LAWS), which can independently make combat decisions. Nations like the U.S., China, and Russia are advancing LAWS, raising ethical concerns about autonomous warfare. The study aims to clarify issues surrounding LAWS, examine international arms control discourse, and propose regulatory strategies. Key areas of discussion include defining LAWS, reviewing debates under the Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons (CCW), addressing regulatory challenges, and suggesting regulation methods for dual-use technology weapons. The article stresses the need for preemptive arms control to limit LAWS development and anticipates future ethical and military landscapes shaped by these technologies. It calls for aligning future LAWS regulations with existing frameworks to manage their impact effectively.
South Eastern European Journal of Public Health, 2024
I. Introduction Some of scholars suggests that the current conflict between the liberal and autho... more I. Introduction Some of scholars suggests that the current conflict between the liberal and authoritarian camps may be seen as a precursor to a "new" Cold War or even a Third World War (Juergensmeyer, 2023). The Russia-Ukraine war has made this situation more visible, and amidst the growing anxiety due to the long-term global economic stagnation, this anxiety evokes a strong sense of déjà vu. However, this sense of familiarity cannot be dismissed solely as negative, since history can present itself anew in different contexts (Leffler, 2019; Brands and Gaddis, 2021). Above all, the violence of our current era is more complex than that of the past. In other words, it is not as clear-cut as the Cold War conflicts of the past. The confrontational framework between liberalism and authoritarianism is merely justifying and normalizing the conflict through liberal norms and their arbitrary interpretation (Yi, 2022b; Yi, 2022a). Human instrumental reason continues to deteriorate in extreme situations. Moreover, the Cold War memories, resurrected by the 'nuclear threat', lead us into a period of confusion and chaos. This does not only refer to the Ukraine war on the other side of the globe; tensions surrounding the Korean Peninsula are also consistently escalating. The 2008 Kumgang Mountain shooting incident and the 2010 Cheonan and Yeonpyeong incidents significantly restricted inter-Korean exchanges and led to a frozen state of inter-Korean relations. In effect, both governmental and civilian exchanges between the two Koreas were virtually suspended. Over the next decade, the situation worsened. Although three inter-Korean summits in 2018 generated momentum for peace on the Korean Peninsula, the situation has continued to deteriorate since the Hanoi US-North Korea summit. Particularly under the new government, a substantial number of missiles, unprecedented even compared to the past, have been launched into the East Sea and the West Sea, and for the first time since the Korean War, beyond the Northern Limit Line (NLL) to the south. Upcoming US-South Korea or US-South Korea-Japan military exercises and North Korea's "proportional response" seem unlikely to cease and are expected to intensify. In response, nuclear armament is becoming a discourse in South Korean politics, and the United States is strengthening alliances and implementing measures that press China under the guise of targeting North Korea. The annulment of the September 19 Pyongyang Joint Declaration has rendered the peace roadmap envisioned in the Pyongyang Joint Declaration a mirage. In this context, it seems that all momentum for inter-Korean dialogue has been exhausted. Thus, questions such as "Is peace possible?" and "What can be done to achieve it?" seem to be mere deep sighs. However, transforming these lamentations into 'admiration' is the destiny of political science. Therefore, this paper aims to examine the issues surrounding tensions on the Korean Peninsula and assess their limitations through an epistemological reconstruction of peace to explore the diversification of subjects. By evaluating concrete empirical measures to overcome the limitations of current discussions, it seeks to provide theoretical grounds for attempts and alternatives. It is undeniable that the absence of discussions on subjectepistemology has restricted the issue of inter-Korean exchange to debates over 'means' and
International Journal of Humanities Education, 2024
This study aims to propose an alternative theoretical framework prioritizing ontology over episte... more This study aims to propose an alternative theoretical framework prioritizing ontology over epistemology within International Political Economy (IPE). By critiquing mainstream epistemological theories, it seeks to reinterpret American hegemony to explore paths towards peace and unification amidst the conflicts between the United States and China, which are particularly pertinent to Korea. The study highlights the dissolution of boundaries between international politics and economics, illustrating hegemony's formation through their interrelation. Especially focus on the ontological turn in international political economy theories, focusing on the limitations of hegemonic stability theory and similar problem-solving theories due to their socio-political ahistoricism. It emphasizes the significance of Neo-Gramscianism, which challenges the traditional paradigms by linking state and society through the dialectical interconnection of production, power, and world order. This perspective allows for a dynamic understanding of the international system, moving beyond stability to embrace the potential for change. The document also critiques the mainstream theories for their epistemological dominance and highlights the need for an ontological shift to understand the international order more comprehensively.
The purpose of this paper is to explore the potential of postcolonial critical international deve... more The purpose of this paper is to explore the potential of postcolonial critical international development studies by critiquing the power dynamics and Eurocentrism inherent in international development research. Through an examination of the South Korean case, this study critically reviews the biases and reproduction of Eurocentrism in international development knowledge and engages in a critical discourse on postcolonial critical international development studies within the Korean context. Historically, with the expansion of European international society, a dichotomy between civilization and barbarism was established, distinguishing the West from "the rest." This hierarchical relationship has persisted even after the end of colonialism, manifesting in the division between developed and underdeveloped countries, or donor and recipient nations, mediated through the concept of "development." Although South-South cooperation has been proposed as an alternative, it faces numerous limitations. Initially, South Korea expanded its development cooperation initiatives by emphasizing its shared experiences of poverty and colonialism with other countries in the Global South and its potential for successful development. However, the emphasis on homogeneity and the successful development model has, paradoxically, facilitated the natural dissemination of the international system established by the West. This has conferred a sense of nationalistic superiority through exceptional achievements and led to the politicization and impoverishment of knowledge in South Korea's state-led knowledge-sharing projects. Despite the political and economic rise of the Global South, the increasing number of failures in South-South cooperation and the growing resistance against these failures underscore the need for critical reflection in South Korea's international development research. This necessitates the adoption of postcolonialism and the critical reconstruction of the dominant international order as essential values for meaningful discourse.
This study analyzes the processes of establishing diplomatic relations and embassies between Sout... more This study analyzes the processes of establishing diplomatic relations and embassies between South Korea and Indonesia, two postcolonial states in the Third World, through the lens of post-hegemonic international political epistemology. To overcome the limitations of power-centric international political epistemology, this research adopts a perspective that focuses on the agency of Third World states in responding to (post)colonialism and the Cold War. Following institutional decolonization, South Korea and Indonesia, which had previously taken different paths in navigating the Cold War with little diplomatic engagement, began to encounter each other within the liberal bloc, establishing diplomatic relations and building embassies after political changes in the mid-1960s. South Korea viewed the construction of its embassy as an extension of its ideological competition with North Korea, mobilizing private resources to build a larger and more strategically located embassy than that of North Korea. On the other hand, Indonesia demonstrated its commitment to forming and enhancing relations with South Korea by appointing a key figure from its regime as its first ambassador, and South Korea reciprocated by actively supporting the embassy's establishment, acknowledging the diplomatic gesture of this new ally in the liberal bloc. This process can be interpreted as the internalization of a distorted identity shaped by external forces, as both countries demonstrated diplomatic agency in responding to the formation and dissolution of Cold War hegemony. This study is significant in that it illuminates the specific and relational agency of Third World countries within the framework of postcolonial and Cold War international politics, interpreting the embassy construction process as an important diplomatic practice.
The purpose of this study is to examine non-Western international relations theory (IRT) and expl... more The purpose of this study is to examine non-Western international relations theory (IRT) and explore, at the theoretical level, the potential for epistemological autonomy from the confines of Western-centered epistemology prevalent in existing IRT. As a consequence, the non-Western world, subjected to colonialist expansion and modernization and often regarded as merely the leaves, has been relegated to a passive role within the international system, becoming a disengaged object of little interest. However, what has existed cannot be entirely erased. While it is undeniable that international politics was predominantly developed based on a Westerncentric epistemology, other ancient civilizations had diverse international systems and orders that molded their identities as regional international societies. Consequently, the study provides a crucial backdrop for theoretical endeavors aimed at integrating the voices and experiences of the Global South into IRT, which has traditionally been dominated by Western perspectives. This study seeks to explore the potential for transcending Western intellectual hegemony by critiquing the limitations of a singular worldview and expanding and transforming the English School Theory (EST). It seeks to investigate the possibility of moving beyond Westerncentricity in international relations theory by conducting a historical comparison of civilizations across countries and the associated disciplines within civilizations as a field.
This paper evaluates the relevance of John Rawls's A Theory of Justice in addressing justice with... more This paper evaluates the relevance of John Rawls's A Theory of Justice in addressing justice within the Anthropocene, focusing on climate change. The Anthropocene marks a period of significant human impact on ecosystems, highlighted by the Trinity Test and the Great Acceleration. The study examines three policy paths: sustainable development, a steady-state economy, and degrowth. While Rawls's influence on political theory is undeniable, critiques by Katrina Forrester suggest his framework may overlook crucial issues like power dynamics. This paper argues for the continued relevance of Rawls's focus on moral psychology and motivation, particularly in intergenerational justice. It narrows the scope to motivations for caring about future generations and reassesses Rawls's assumptions about economic growth. Through the concept of "theodicy of difference," it challenges the notion that Rawls presupposed growth, ultimately supporting the applicability of his theory in contemporary environmental discussions.
Auricle Global Society of Education and Research, 2023
This study explores the decline of American hegemony, which dominated the latter half of the 20th... more This study explores the decline of American hegemony, which dominated the latter half of the 20th century following the United States' emergence as a global leader post-World War II. Despite unprecedented economic prosperity and military dominance, the United States' hegemonic status began to face skepticism in the 1970s due to global recession and disillusionment with American-style liberalism. The 1985 announcement of the US as a debtor nation marked the beginning of a perceived decline in American economic power. Although the 1990s economic boom provided temporary optimism, subsequent economic challenges and the 2008 financial crisis reignited debates about the sustainability of the American-led neoliberal order. This study critically evaluates the ideological foundations of American hegemony and questions the stability of the neoliberal international order that has shaped global governance since the late 20th century.
The crisis of the liberal international order, initiated by the 2008
Financial Crisis in the Unit... more The crisis of the liberal international order, initiated by the 2008 Financial Crisis in the United States, marked the onset of U.S. hegemonic decline. Consequently, China's ascension introduced a rift in the structure of U.S. hegemony, giving rise to the 'New Cold War' global order. This transformation was concretized by Russia's subsequent invasion of Ukraine. Primarily, the prevailing sense of crisis resonates throughout the Western world, as the invasion profoundly challenged the military security of the EU. Thus, this study examines the national security policies of the EU in response to those changes of international order. EU defines their security concept as the normative power such as "civilian power" founded on the economic superiority and supplemented by intergovernmentalism in terms of military security. However, the Brexit and NATO's "brain death" after Cold War but also Ukraine war have left the EU recognition of the military-security vacuum. In the regard, EU faces on the challenge how EU compel UK and NATO involve into the unstable European international order. It is important to understand next hegemonic international order.
This study aims to diagnose the current state of the Korean Peninsula by
examining the transition... more This study aims to diagnose the current state of the Korean Peninsula by examining the transitional international order. The strategic competition between the United States and China and military conflicts such as the war in Ukraine and the war in Israel are raising fundamental questions about the liberal international order that has dominated the post-war order and the leadership of the United States in leading it. The U.S. Indo-Pacific strategy can be understood as a response to those challenges ahead. The problem is that the Korean Peninsula has been caught in the magnetic field of this grand strategy (trilateral cooperation between the United States, South Korea, and Japan). Yun Suk-yeol administration’s Korean version of the Indo-Pacific Strategy, along with the Value Alliance Doctrine, was intended to counter North Korea’s nuclear weapons development programme, but the magnetic field pushed it into a realm beyond its control, bringing China, Russia and North Korea closer together and perpetuating the Korean Question. In order to escape the magnetic field of great power rivalry, this article shed light on the imagination to abandon factional epistemologies and establish new non-aligned spaces.
Contemporary Readings in Law and Social Justice, 2024
Emerging technology has gained prominence in U.S. export controls, particularly following the 201... more Emerging technology has gained prominence in U.S. export controls, particularly following the 2019 National Defense Authorization Act, which includes the Export Control Reform Act (ECRA) and the Foreign Investment Risk Review Modernization Act (FIRRMA). Influenced by China's draft Export Control Law, these measures underscore a technological rivalry between the U.S. and China dating back to the 1970s. This paper reviews the historical and current U.S. export control systems and U.S.-China relations. The U.S. approach balances national security with economic interests, evolving from Cold War-era policies to recent unilateral measures on emerging technologies. The re-legislation of ECRA in 2018 marks a strategic shift, highlighting China as a key competitor. This legislation aims to enhance control over advanced technologies, reflecting the U.S.'s commitment to maintaining technological leadership and national security amidst global challenges.
본고의 목적은 안보 개념 변화에 따른 경제적 통치술(economic statecraft) 의 위상변화를 살펴보고, 경제 안보적 요소인 희토류 문제를 중심으로 중국의 통치술의 ... more 본고의 목적은 안보 개념 변화에 따른 경제적 통치술(economic statecraft) 의 위상변화를 살펴보고, 경제 안보적 요소인 희토류 문제를 중심으로 중국의 통치술의 진화와 발전에 대해 검토하는 것이다. 이를 위해 본고는 신흥안보의 관점에서 경제적 통치술의 안보적 연계성을 해석하고, 중국의 통치술이 어떻게 발전했는지를 살펴봤다. 신흥안보 등의 복잡 네트워크화 되어가는 안보개념을 상정하되, 이에 대한 정치경제학적 분석을 전제한다는 점에서 진화된 시도이다. 최근 미중 전략경쟁에서 구사되는 제재-보상 형태의 통치술이 군사적 대립보다 우선되고, 나아가 대립의 중심에서 IPEF, Chip4등의 형태로 사활적으로 구사되고 있다는 점은 그 중요성을 대변한다. 안보적 개념으로서의 통치술 발전을 중국의 희토류 금수조치사례 전후를 비교하며 그 발전과 진화를 살펴보았다. 이는 단편적인 자원 민족주의적 현실주의 분석에서 한 발 더 나아간 해석이라는 점에서 유의미하다. 무엇보다, 선진국을 대상한 제재의 통치술이라는 점은 향후 미중 간 전략적 경쟁에서 미국에 대해 중국이 어떻게 대응지 그 방향성을 가늠할 수 있다는 점에서 중요한 논의가 될 것이다.
The purpose of this study is that to examine the changes in the status of economic statecraft based on the concept of security and reviews the evolution of Chinese statecraft, focusing on rare earths. For the purpose of this study, the paper interprets the security linkage of economic statecraft through the concept of emerging security, and examines how China's economic statecraft has been developed. The development of economic statecraft as the emerging security based on the approach of political economy was examined by comparing the before and after of China's rare earth export restriction. It takes a step forward from a fragmentary resource-nationalist realist understanding. Above all, the economic statecraft of sanctions against developed countries will be an important discussion how China will respond to the U.S in the strategic competition of them.
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Papers by Yoochul Lee
Financial Crisis in the United States, marked the onset of U.S.
hegemonic decline. Consequently, China's ascension introduced a rift
in the structure of U.S. hegemony, giving rise to the 'New Cold
War' global order. This transformation was concretized by
Russia's subsequent invasion of Ukraine. Primarily, the prevailing
sense of crisis resonates throughout the Western world, as the
invasion profoundly challenged the military security of the EU.
Thus, this study examines the national security policies of the EU
in response to those changes of international order. EU defines
their security concept as the normative power such as "civilian
power" founded on the economic superiority and supplemented by
intergovernmentalism in terms of military security. However, the
Brexit and NATO's "brain death" after Cold War but also Ukraine
war have left the EU recognition of the military-security vacuum.
In the regard, EU faces on the challenge how EU compel UK and
NATO involve into the unstable European international order. It is
important to understand next hegemonic international order.
examining the transitional international order. The strategic competition
between the United States and China and military conflicts such as the war in
Ukraine and the war in Israel are raising fundamental questions about the
liberal international order that has dominated the post-war order and the
leadership of the United States in leading it. The U.S. Indo-Pacific strategy
can be understood as a response to those challenges ahead. The problem is
that the Korean Peninsula has been caught in the magnetic field of this grand
strategy (trilateral cooperation between the United States, South Korea, and
Japan). Yun Suk-yeol administration’s Korean version of the Indo-Pacific
Strategy, along with the Value Alliance Doctrine, was intended to counter
North Korea’s nuclear weapons development programme, but the magnetic
field pushed it into a realm beyond its control, bringing China, Russia and
North Korea closer together and perpetuating the Korean Question. In order
to escape the magnetic field of great power rivalry, this article shed light on
the imagination to abandon factional epistemologies and establish new
non-aligned spaces.
The U.S. approach balances national security with economic interests, evolving from Cold War-era policies to recent unilateral measures on emerging technologies. The re-legislation of ECRA in 2018 marks a
strategic shift, highlighting China as a key competitor. This legislation aims to enhance control over advanced technologies, reflecting the U.S.'s commitment to maintaining technological leadership and national security amidst global challenges.
The purpose of this study is that to examine the changes in the status of economic statecraft based on the concept of security and reviews the evolution of Chinese statecraft, focusing on rare earths. For the purpose of this study, the paper interprets the security linkage of economic statecraft through the concept of emerging security, and examines how China's economic statecraft has been developed. The development of economic statecraft as the emerging security based on the approach of political economy was examined by comparing the before and after of China's rare
earth export restriction. It takes a step forward from a fragmentary resource-nationalist realist understanding. Above all, the economic statecraft of sanctions against developed countries will be an important discussion how China will respond to the U.S in the strategic competition of them.