The aims and scope of this book are set out in the beginning of the first chapter (unimaginativel... more The aims and scope of this book are set out in the beginning of the first chapter (unimaginatively labelled Introduction). So these prefacing comments are confined to acknowledging some of the help we and the other authors have received in putting this book together. The two of us are deeply indebted to the other 21 authors who have contributed to the book, both for the work they did and for their exemplary adherence to a rather fast production schedule. Individual authors have wished to thank both funding agencies and helpful colleagues who gave assistance of various kinds. This would have been an impressively long list, but we unkindly decided against including it. We must, however, recognize the generosity of Merton College and the Zoology Department at the University of Oxford, and particularly their respective heads, Dame Jessica Rawson and Professor Paul Harvey. They made it possible to bring the authors and others together for a 2-day conference, in which the sweep of material in this book was exposed to discussion and constructive criticism. It helped shape the book. Our thanks are also owed to enthusiastic and helpful people at Oxford University Press, particularly the commissioning editor, Ian Sherman, the production editor, Christine Rode, and the copyeditor, Nik Prowse. R.M.M.'s assistant, Chris Bond, was her usual invaluable self, helping in every facet of the enterprise with unflappable competence. Sadly, one of the authors-Geoff Kirkwoodunexpectedly died the week after the gathering in Oxford. Everyone remembers him with affection, and his shadow lies on the book. He will be missed.
Chapter 6 introduces a significant topicbioceramics, which has been a subject of intense research... more Chapter 6 introduces a significant topicbioceramics, which has been a subject of intense research in the biomaterials field. Not only the inert but also the bioresorbable types are important nowadays. Chapter 7 describes the polymeric hydrogels which have now earned a place in many useful applicationsranging from contact lenses to control of drug release devices. The structure of polymers is an important topic, especially in the quest to engineer and use polymers as biomaterials. Chapters 8 and 9 are on composites: the former on polymer-bioceramic composites especially the Hapex material, while the latter describes the textile composite which has found some useful applications such as in vascular grafts. Chapter 10 may seem out of place. But with the latest prosthetic materials and the new technologies that have gone into this traditional field, this chapter sheds new light into what materials engineers have accomplished in the field of prosthetics: lightweight and intelligent lower limb prostheses. The use of computers has indeed revolutionized the way we design materials. The last chapter, Chapter 1 1, describes a natural biomaterialchitin. Chitin is fast becoming a useful material not only in wound dressings, but also in tissue engineering's scaffolds because of its special cell mediation properties. It is hoped that all the 11 chapters written by many distinguished experts will provide a good start to better understanding in engineering materials for biomedical applications.
This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the P... more This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher (other than as may be noted herein). Notices Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary. Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.
BIOMATERIAL IS USED to make devices to replace a part or a function of the body in a safe, reliab... more BIOMATERIAL IS USED to make devices to replace a part or a function of the body in a safe, reliable, economic, and physiologically acceptable manner [Hench and Erthridge, 1982]. A variety of devices and materials presently used in the treatment of disease or injury include such commonplace items as sutures, needles, catheters, plates, tooth fillings, etc. Over the years, various definitions of the term biomaterials have been proposed. For example, a biomaterial can be simply defined as a synthetic material used to replace part of a living system or to function in intimate contact with living tissue. The Clemson University Advisory Board for Biomaterials has formally defined a biomaterial to be "a systemically and pharmacologically inert substance designed for implantation within or incorporation with living systems." Black defined biomaterials as "a nonviable material used in a medical device, intended to interact with biological systems" [Black, 1992]. Other definitions have included "materials of synthetic as well as of natural origin in contact with tissue, blood, and biological fluids, and intended for use for prosthetic, diagnostic, therapeutic, and storage applications without adversely affecting the living organism and its components" [Bruck, 1980] and "any substance (other than drugs) or combination of substances, synthetic or natural in origin, which can be used for any period of time, as a whole or as a part of a system which treats, augments, or replaces any tissue, organ, or function of the body" [Williams, 1987]. By contrast, a biological material is a material such as skin or artery, produced by a biological system. Artificial materials that simply are in contact with the skin, such as hearing aids and wearable artificial limbs, are not included in our definition of biomaterials since the skin acts as a barrier with the external world. According to these definitions one must possess knowledge in a number of different disciplines or collaborate with individuals from a wide variety of different specialties in order to properly develop and use biomaterials in medicine and dentistry (see Table 1). Table 2 provides some examples of the uses of biomaterials, which include replacement of a body part that has lost function due to disease or trauma, to assist in healing, to improve performance, and to correct abnormalities. The role of biomaterials has been influenced considerably by advances in many areas of biotechnology and science. For example, with the advent of antibiotics, infectious disease is less of a threat than in former times, so that degenerative diseases assume a greater importance. Moreover, advances in surgical technique and instruments have permitted materials to be used in ways that were not possible previously. This book is intended to familiarize the reader with the uses of materials in medicine and dentistry and provide an explanation of the scientific basis for these applications. The performance of materials in the body can be classified in many ways. First, biomaterials may be considered from the point of view of the problem area that is to be solved, as in Table 2. Second, we may consider the body on a tissue level, an organ level (Table 3), or a system level (Table 4). Third, we may consider the classification of materials as polymers, metals, ceramics, and composites as is done in Table 5. In that vein, the role of biomaterials is governed by the interaction between the material and TABLE 1 Fields of Knowledge to Develop Biomaterials Discipline Examples Science and engineering Materials sciences: structure-property relationship of synthetic and biological materials including metals, ceramics, polymers, composites, tissues (blood and connective tissues), etc. Biology and physiology Cell and molecular biology, anatomy, animal and human physiology,
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, etc. in this publication does... more The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
Designations used by companies to distinguish their products are often claimed as trademarks. All... more Designations used by companies to distinguish their products are often claimed as trademarks. All brand names and product names used in this book are trade names, service marks, trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective owners. The Publisher is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book. All trademarks referred to in the text of this publication are the property of their To my parents, Jan and Magriet Engelbrecht, without whose loving support this would not have happened.
Numerical Methods in Engineering with MATLAB ® Numerical Methods in Engineering with MATLAB ® is ... more Numerical Methods in Engineering with MATLAB ® Numerical Methods in Engineering with MATLAB ® is a text for engineering students and a reference for practicing engineers, especially those who wish to explore the power and efficiency of MATLAB. The choice of numerical methods was based on their relevance to engineering problems. Every method is discussed thoroughly and illustrated with problems involving both hand computation and programming. MATLAB M-files accompany each method and are available on the book web site. This code is made simple and easy to understand by avoiding complex book-keeping schemes, while maintaining the essential features of the method. MATLAB, was chosen as the example language because of its ubiquitous use in engineering studies and practice. Moreover, it is widely available to students on school networks and through inexpensive educational versions. MATLAB a popular tool for teaching scientific computation. Jaan Kiusalaas is a Professor Emeritus in the Department of Engineering Science and Mechanics at the Pennsylvania State University. He has taught numerical methods, including finite element and boundary element methods for over 30 years. He is also the co-author of four other Books-Engineering Mechanics: Statics, Engineering Mechanics: Dynamics, Mechanics of Materials, and an alternate version of this work with Python code.
Dedicated to Ivona and Michael I would like to thank all the third and fourth year students at Im... more Dedicated to Ivona and Michael I would like to thank all the third and fourth year students at Imperial College London between the years 2001 and 2004 for correcting many "typoes" and improving my notes a great deal by telling me what points need to be clarified. In particular thanks to William Irvine (now at Santa Barbara) for reading and revising a very early version of my notes (back in 2000). I am also grateful to Luke Rallan for his help with a very early version of the book. I acknowledge Peter Knight, who proposed the first course on Quantum Optics at Imperial College London and whose syllabus I have modified only a bit here and there when I taught it myself. Very special thanks goes to Caroline Rogers for preparing the manuscript for the final submission to Imperial College Press. She has redrawn many of the figures, as well as corrected and clarified some parts of the book. Her hard work was essential for the final preparation, which otherwise may have taken a much longer time to complete. My deepest gratitude goes to my family, Ivona and Michael, who provide a constant source of inspiration and joy.
Chapter 1 Introduction to phonetics 1 I.I Introduction i 1.2 The production of speech 2 1.2. i Th... more Chapter 1 Introduction to phonetics 1 I.I Introduction i 1.2 The production of speech 2 1.2. i The production of consonants 2 1.3 The production of vowels .8 Chapter 2 The phoneme 16 2.1 Segments of sound 16 2. I.I Distinctiveness: phonemes and allophones 18 2.2 Identifying phonemes 22 2.2.1 The minimal pair test 22 2.2.2 Contrast in analogous environments 23 2.2.3 Suspicious pairs 24 2.2.4 Recapitulation 24 2.3 Phonological symmetry 25 Chapter 3 Distinctive features 35 3.1 Why are features needed? 35 3.2 Jakobsonian features 38 3.3 The SPE system of distinctive features 42 3.3.1 Major class features 42 3-3 3-3 3-3 3-3 3-3 3-3 2 Cavity features 43 3 Tongue body features 45 4 Tongue root features 47 5 Laryngeal features 48 6 Manner features 50 7 Prosodic features 51 3.4 Segment structure redundancy 56 vi Contents Chapter 4 Phonological representations 60 4.1 Phonetics and phonology 60 4.2 The domain of phonology 66 4.3 Recapitulation: levels of representation 69 4.4 Phonetic and phonemic transcription 69 4.5 A guide to phonetic transcription 72 4.6 Why study phonology? 73
All books published by Wilcy-VCH are carefully produced. Nevertheless, authors, cditors, and publ... more All books published by Wilcy-VCH are carefully produced. Nevertheless, authors, cditors, and publisher do not wanant the inforination contained in these books, including this book, to be free of errors. Readers are advised to keep in mind that statements, data, illustrations, procedural details or other items may inadvertently be inaccurate. Library of Congress Card Nu.: Applied for British Library Cataloging-in-Publication Data: A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Bibliographic information published by Die Deiitschc Bibliothek Die Deutsche Hihliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data is available in the Internet at <http://dnb.ddb.de>.
No previous knowledge of polymers is assumed in this book which provides a general introduction t... more No previous knowledge of polymers is assumed in this book which provides a general introduction to the physics of solid polymers. The book covers a wide range of topics within the field of polymer physics, beginning with a brief history of the development of synthetic polymers and an overview of the methods of polymerisation and processing. In the following chapter, David Bower describes important experimental techniques used in the study of polymers. The main part of the book, however, is devoted to the structure and properties of solid polymers, including blends, copolymers and liquid-crystal polymers. With an approach appropriate for advanced undergraduate and graduate students of physics, materials science and chemistry, the book includes many worked examples and problems with solutions. It will provide a firm foundation for the study of the physics of solid polymers. DAVID BOWER received his D.Phil. from the University of Oxford in 1964. In 1990 he became a reader in the Department of Physics at the University of Leeds, retiring from this position in 1995. He was a founder member of the management committee of the IRC in Polymer Science and Technology (Universities of Leeds, Durham and Bradford), and co-authored The Vibrational Spectroscopy of Polymers with W. F. Maddams (CUP, 1989). His contribution to the primary literature has included work on polymers, solid-state physics and magnetism.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or tra... more All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, without the prior written permission of the publisher, except in the case of brief quotations embedded in critical articles or reviews. Every effort has been made in the preparation of this book to ensure the accuracy of the information presented. However, the information contained in this book is sold without warranty, either express or implied. Neither the author, nor Packt Publishing, and its dealers and distributors will be held liable for any damages caused or alleged to be caused directly or indirectly by this book. Packt Publishing has endeavored to provide trademark information about all of the companies and products mentioned in this book by the appropriate use of capitals. However, Packt Publishing cannot guarantee the accuracy of this information.
The Royal Society of Chemistry 2001 All rights reserved Apurtjrom uny fair cieuling fiw the purpo... more The Royal Society of Chemistry 2001 All rights reserved Apurtjrom uny fair cieuling fiw the purposes of reseurch or privute study, or criticisrn or review US permitted under the ternis qf' the UK Copyriglit, Designs and Patents Act, 1988, this puhlicuiion rnuy not he rqmduceci, storedor transmitted, in uny form or by uny nicans, Itgithout the prior perniission in writing of' The Royul Society of Chemistry, or in the cu.se of' reprogruphic reprodui*tion only in occordunce with the terms of the 1icencc.s issurd by the Copyright Licensing Agency in the UK, or in uccordunce with the t e r m of the licences issued by the uppropriuttJ Reproduction Rights Orgunixtion otitsidc thc UK. Enquiries concerning rqwoduction outside the terms stated here should be sent to The Royul Society of Chemistry at the uddress printed on this page.
To Ann xiv Preface removes any drudgery that might otherwise be entailed. Selected problems requi... more To Ann xiv Preface removes any drudgery that might otherwise be entailed. Selected problems require the use of one of the earlier mentioned high level computing languages for the solution of transcendental or differential equations. These are marked with an asterisk. The preparation of this text would have been immensely more difficult if not impossible without the help and encouragement of many friends, colleagues, and students. Advice and assistance from the staff of the Nuclear Engineering Division of Argonne National Laboratory have been invaluable in the text's preparation. Won Sik Yang, in particular, has provided advice, reactor parameters, graphical illustrations, and more as well-taking the time to proofread the draft manuscript in its entirety.
Working together to grow libraries in developing countries www.elsevier.com | www.bookaid.org | w... more Working together to grow libraries in developing countries www.elsevier.com | www.bookaid.org | www.sabre.org Contents General introduction ix A. Metals 1 1. Metals the generic metals and alloys; iron-based, copper-based, nickel-based, aluminium-based and titanium-based alloys; design data; examples 3 2. Metal structures the range of metal structures that can be altered to get different properties: crystal and glass structure, structures of solutions and compounds, grain and phase boundaries, equilibrium shapes of grains and phases; examples 3. Equilibrium constitution and phase diagrams how mixing elements to make an alloy can change their structure; examples: the lead-tin, copper-nickel and copper-zinc alloy systems; examples 4. Case studies in phase diagrams choosing soft solders; pure silicon for microchips; making bubble-free ice; examples 5. The driving force for structural change the work done during a structural change gives the driving force for the change; examples: solidification, solid-state phase changes, precipitate coarsening, grain growth, recrystallisation; sizes of driving forces; examples 6. Kinetics of structural change: I -diffusive transformations why transformation rates peak -the opposing claims of driving force and thermal activation; why latent heat and diffusion slow transformations down; examples 7. Kinetics of structural change: II -nucleation how new phases nucleate in liquids and solids; why nucleation is helped by solid catalysts; examples: nucleation in plants, vapour trails, bubble chambers and caramel; examples v vi Contents 8. Kinetics of structural change: III -displacive transformations how we can avoid diffusive transformations by rapid cooling; the alternative -displacive (shear) transformations at the speed of sound; examples 9. Case studies in phase transformations artificial rain-making; fine-grained castings; single crystals for semiconductors; amorphous metals; examples 10. The light alloys where they score over steels; how they can be made stronger: solution, age and work hardening; thermal stability; examples 11. Steels: I -carbon steels structures produced by diffusive changes; structures produced by displacive changes (martensite); why quenching and tempering can transform the strength of steels; the TTT diagram; examples 12. Steels: II -alloy steels adding other elements gives hardenability (ease of martensite formation), solution strengthening, precipitation strengthening, corrosion resistance, and austenitic (f.c.c.) steels; examples 13. Case studies in steels metallurgical detective work after a boiler explosion; welding steels together safely; the case of the broken hammer; examples 14. Production, forming and joining of metals processing routes for metals; casting; plastic working; control of grain size; machining; joining; surface engineering; examples B. Ceramics and glasses 15. Ceramics and glasses the generic ceramics and glasses: glasses, vitreous ceramics, high-technology ceramics, cements and concretes, natural ceramics (rocks and ice), ceramic composites; design data; examples 16. Structure of ceramics crystalline ceramics; glassy ceramics; ceramic alloys; ceramic micro-structures: pure, vitreous and composite; examples 17. The mechanical properties of ceramics high stiffness and hardness; poor toughness and thermal shock resistance; the excellent creep resistance of refractory ceramics; examples Contents vii 18. The statistics of brittle fracture and case study how the distribution of flaw sizes gives a dispersion of strength: the Weibull distribution; why the strength falls with time (static fatigue); case study: the design of pressure windows; examples 19. Production, forming and joining of ceramics processing routes for ceramics; making and pressing powders to shape; working glasses; making high-technology ceramics; joining ceramics; applications of high-performance ceramics; examples 20. Special topic: cements and concretes historical background; cement chemistry; setting and hardening of cement; strength of cement and concrete; high-strength cements; examples C. Polymers and composites 21. Polymers the generic polymers: thermoplastics, thermosets, elastomers, natural polymers; design data; examples 22. The structure of polymers giant molecules and their architecture; molecular packing: amorphous or crystalline?; examples 23. Mechanical behaviour of polymers how the modulus and strength depend on temperature and time; examples 24. Production, forming and joining of polymers making giant molecules by polymerisation; polymer "alloys"; forming and joining polymers; examples 25. Composites: fibrous, particulate and foamed how adding fibres or particles to polymers can improve their stiffness, strength and toughness; why foams are good for absorbing energy; examples 26. Special topic: wood one of nature's most successful composite materials; examples D. Designing with metals, ceramics, polymers and composites 27. Design with materials the design-limiting properties of metals, ceramics, polymers and composites; design methodology; examples viii Contents 28. Case studies in design 1. Designing with metals: conveyor drums for an iron ore terminal 2. Designing with ceramics: ice forces on offshore structures 3. Designing with polymers: a plastic wheel 4. Designing with composites: materials for violin bodies 29. Engineering failures and disasters -the ultimate test of design Introduction
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