Thomas McNulty

The Residential Process and the Ecological Concentration of Race, Poverty and Violent Crime in New York City

Sociological focus, Feb 1, 1999

ABSTRACT Drawing on Sampson and Wilson&#39;s (1995) theory of urban inequality and related re... more ABSTRACT Drawing on Sampson and Wilson&#39;s (1995) theory of urban inequality and related research, I test the hypothesis that the relationship between race and neighborhood exposure to violent crime reflects a residential process in which African Americans are at a substantial disadvantage. Using 1990 crime and census data for New York City, individual-level regression models show sharp racial/ethnic disparities in residential exposure to violent crime, regardless of individual characteristics. Expanded models including contextual variables show that these disparities are explained by the concentration of minorities in poor, minority neighborhoods, with correspondingly higher rates of violence. Findings thus lend substantial support for a community-level, contextual interpretation of racial differences in exposure to violent crime.

The Significance of Duration Weighted Neighborhood Effects for Violent Behavior and Explanation of Ethnoracial Differences

Journal of quantitative criminology, May 7, 2024

Purpose Two important issues constrain the neighborhood effects literature. First, most prior res... more Purpose Two important issues constrain the neighborhood effects literature. First, most prior research examining neighborhood effects on aggression and self-reported violence uses a point in time (i.e., cross-sectional) estimate of neighborhood disadvantage even though the duration of exposure to neighborhood disadvantage varies between families. Second, neighborhood effects may be understated due to over-controlling for family socioeconomic conditions. Both limitations suggest that prior research may be underestimating neighborhood effects, which impacts research on the invariance thesis and explanation of ethnoracial differences. Methods The sample is drawn from the restricted use Future of Families and Child Wellbeing study. Data to measure youth's exposure to neighborhood disadvantage is drawn from birth through age 9, with dependent variables measured at age 15. We estimate marginal structural models (MSM) with inverse probability of treatment weights (IPTW. The results support hypotheses, indicating that the duration weighted measure of neighborhood disadvantage is more strongly associated with aggression and self-reported violence than the point in time, and that it accounts for a larger share of the ethnoracial differences. Conclusions The findings provide a clear image of the consequences of long-term exposure to neighborhood disadvantage for aggression and violence. They suggest that criminologists addressing neighborhood effects should attempt, when feasible, to document and model the duration of exposure to neighborhood disadvantage. They are also consistent with and add to a growing literature addressing MSM modeling with IPTW weights.

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Explaining racial and ethnic differences in adolescent violence: Structural disadvantage, family well-being, and social capital

Justice Quarterly, Mar 1, 2003

This article integrates theory and research in criminology and urban sociology to specify a conte... more

Persistent material hardship and childhood physical aggression

Aggression and Violent Behavior, Nov 1, 2019

This is a PDF file of an article that has undergone enhancements after acceptance, such as the ad... more This is a PDF file of an article that has undergone enhancements after acceptance, such as the addition of a cover page and metadata, and formatting for readability, but it is not yet the definitive version of record. This version will undergo additional copyediting, typesetting and review before it is published in its final form, but we are providing this version to give early visibility of the article. Please note that, during the production process, errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain.

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Neighborhood Disadvantage and Verbal Ability as Explanations of the Black–White Difference in Adolescent Violence

Crime & Delinquency, Nov 16, 2012

This article develops a multilevel model that integrates individual difference and sociological e... more This article develops a multilevel model that integrates individual difference and sociological explanations of the Black–White difference in adolescent violence. Our basic premise is that low verbal ability is a criminogenic risk factor that is in part an outcome of exposure to neighborhood and family disadvantages. Analysis of the 1997 National Longitudinal Survey of Youth reveals that verbal ability has direct and indirect effects (through school achievement) on violence, provides a partial explanation for the racial disparity, and mediates the effect of socioeconomic disadvantage at the neighborhood level. Results support the view that neighborhood and family disadvantages have repercussions for the acquisition of verbal ability, which, in turn, serves as a protective factor against violence. We conclude that explanation of the race difference is best conceived as originating from the segregation of Blacks in disadvantaged contexts.

Duration-Weighted Exposure to Neighborhood Disadvantage and Racial-Ethnic Differences in Adolescent Sexual Behavior

Journal of Health and Social Behavior, Oct 4, 2021

Racial-ethnic disparities in adolescent sexual risk behavior are associated with health dispariti... more Racial-ethnic disparities in adolescent sexual risk behavior are associated with health disparities during adulthood and are therefore important to understand. Some scholars argue that neighborhood disadvantage induces disparities, yet prior research is mixed. We extend neighborhood-effects research by addressing long-term exposure to neighborhood disadvantage and estimation bias resulting from inclusion of time-varying covariates. Drawing from the Fragile Families and Child Well-Being Study, we compare a point-in-time proximal measure of neighborhood disadvantage with a duration-weighted measure using marginal structural models with inverse probability of treatment weights. Findings indicate that multiracial, non-Hispanic black, and Hispanic youth exhibit significantly higher sexual risk and duration-weighted exposure to neighborhood disadvantage than non-Hispanic white adolescents. Duration-weighted exposure is a better predictor of sexual initiation and number of partners by age 15 than a point-in-time proximal measure of neighborhood disadvantage and accounts for a substantial portion of the race-ethnic differences in sexual risk.

Childhood Material Hardship and Externalizing Behavior

Justice Quarterly, Apr 24, 2019

The role of socioeconomic status (SES) in the etiology of childhood externalizing behavior remain... more The role of socioeconomic status (SES) in the etiology of childhood externalizing behavior remains unclear, especially within developmental models. Many scholars argue that material hardship (i.e. inability to meet basic needs such as food and shelter) is a better indicator of economic pressure than economic hardship (i.e. income), yet material hardship is seldom considered. We draw on a longitudinal sample of young males in the Fragile Families and Child Well-Being Study (n ¼ 1,135) and contrast the influence of persistent material hardship with that of economic hardship. Results indicate that the experience of heightened material hardship, irrespective of economic hardship, matters. High-material hardship triples the odds of externalizing behavior by age 9 compared to those in a low-material hardship group. Effects are partially mediated by parental supervision, child diligence, and children's bonds to school. Findings warrant further investigation of material hardship and its impact on children's externalizing behavior.

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The Neglected Role of Concentration at the Extremes in Tests of the Racial Invariance Thesis

Race and justice, Feb 10, 2023

Research seeking to test racial invariance in neighborhood violence emphasizes concentrated disad... more Research seeking to test racial invariance in neighborhood violence emphasizes concentrated disadvantage despite the problem of “restricted distributions.” We investigate whether spatial polarization of disadvantage and affluence accounts for racial differences when there are few extremely poor, white neighborhoods for comparison. Drawing on data for Atlanta, GA neighborhoods (N = 314), the analysis evaluates the racial invariance thesis by assessing (1) whether racial/ethnic differences in neighborhood violence are better explained by the index of concentration at the extremes (ICE) than alternative socioeconomic measures, and (2) whether it exerts expected effects on violent crime in white, black, and mixed-race neighborhoods. Findings reveal that heightened violence in black and mixed-race neighborhoods (relative to white) is fully explained by the ICE index, but not by concentrated disadvantage or within-neighborhood inequality (GINI). Theoretically expected effects of the ICE index on violent crime across white, black, and mixed-race neighborhoods are also evident.

Beyond the Bell Curve: Community Disadvantage and the Explanation of Black-White Differences in Adolescent Violence*

Criminology, Nov 1, 2005

Explaining Racial and Ethnic Differences in Serious Adolescent Violent Behavior*

Criminology, Aug 1, 2003

This study explains raciawethnic differences in serious adolescent violent behavior using (I cont... more This study explains raciawethnic differences in serious adolescent violent behavior using (I contextual model derived from prior urban, developmental, and criminological theory. Using data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Adolescent Health, we compare involvement in serious violence among Asians. blacks, Hispanics, Native Americans, and whites. Results indicate that statistical differences between whites and minority groups are explained by variation in community disadvantage (for blacks), involvement in gangs (for Hispanics), social bonds (for Native Americans), and situational variables (for Asians). The lesser involvement in violence among Asians compared to blacks, Hispanics, and Native Americans is accounted for by similar factors. Differences in violent behavior among the latter three minority groups are not significant. Theoretical and policy implications of the findings are discussed.

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Verbal Ability and Persistent Offending: A Race-specific Test of Moffitt’s Theory

Justice Quarterly, May 21, 2014

His current research tests theoretical explanations for race differences in violence and recidivi... more

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Race, Crime, and Public Housing in Atlanta: Testing a Conditional Effect Hypothesis

Social Forces, Dec 1, 2000

Abstract This article tests a conditional effect hypothesis which predicts that the strength and ... more

Contingent Urban Geographies of Violent Crime: Racial Segregation and the Impact of Public Housing in Atlanta

Urban Geography, May 1, 2003

Neighborhoods and Racial/Ethnic Disparities in Adolescent Sexual Risk Behavior

Journal of Youth and Adolescence, Nov 9, 2013

Understanding the determinants of racial/ethnic disparities in adolescent sexual risk behavior is... more Understanding the determinants of racial/ethnic disparities in adolescent sexual risk behavior is important given its links to the differential risk of teen pregnancy, childbearing, and sexually transmitted infections. This article tests a contextual model that emphasizes the concentration of neighborhood disadvantage in shaping racial/ethnic disparities in sexual risk behavior. We focus on two risk behaviors that are prevalent among Black and Hispanic youth: the initiation of sexual activity in adolescence and the number of sex partners. Using data from the 1997 National Longitudinal Study of Youth (N = 6,985; 48% female; 57% non-Hispanic White) evidence indicates that neighborhood disadvantage-measured by concentrated poverty, unemployment rates, and the proportion of female-headed households-partially explains Black and Hispanic disparities from Whites in the odds of adolescent sexual debut, although the prevalence of femaleheaded households in neighborhoods appears to be the main driver in this domain. Likewise, accounting for neighborhood disadvantage reduces the Black-White and Hispanic-White disparity in the number of sexual partners, although less so relative to sexual debut. We discuss theoretical and practical implications of these findings.

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The Neglected Role of Concentration at the Extremes in Tests of the Racial Invariance Thesis

Race and Justice

Research seeking to test racial invariance in neighborhood violence emphasizes concentrated disad... more Research seeking to test racial invariance in neighborhood violence emphasizes concentrated disadvantage despite the problem of “restricted distributions.” We investigate whether spatial polarization of disadvantage and affluence accounts for racial differences when there are few extremely poor, white neighborhoods for comparison. Drawing on data for Atlanta, GA neighborhoods (N = 314), the analysis evaluates the racial invariance thesis by assessing (1) whether racial/ethnic differences in neighborhood violence are better explained by the index of concentration at the extremes (ICE) than alternative socioeconomic measures, and (2) whether it exerts expected effects on violent crime in white, black, and mixed-race neighborhoods. Findings reveal that heightened violence in black and mixed-race neighborhoods (relative to white) is fully explained by the ICE index, but not by concentrated disadvantage or within-neighborhood inequality (GINI). Theoretically expected effects of the ICE i...

Les minorit�s des villes globales�: New York et Los Angeles

Difference in Adolescent Violence: Toward an Integrated Model

This article develops a multilevel model that integrates individual difference and sociological e... more This article develops a multilevel model that integrates individual difference and sociological explanations of the Black–White difference in adolescent violence. Our basic premise is that low verbal ability is a criminogenic risk fac-tor that is in part an outcome of exposure to neighborhood and family disad-vantages. Analysis of the 1997 National Longitudinal Survey of Youth reveals that verbal ability has direct and indirect effects (through school achieve-ment) on violence, provides a partial explanation for the racial disparity, and mediates the effect of socioeconomic disadvantage at the neighborhood level. Results support the view that neighborhood and family disadvantages have repercussions for the acquisition of verbal ability, which, in turn, serves as a protective factor against violence. We conclude that explanation of the race difference is best conceived as originating from the segregation of Blacks in disadvantaged contexts.

Neighborhood Disadvantage and Verbal Ability as Explanations of the Black–White Difference in Adolescent Violence

Crime & Delinquency, 2012

This article develops a multilevel model that integrates individual difference and sociological e... more This article develops a multilevel model that integrates individual difference and sociological explanations of the Black–White difference in adolescent violence. Our basic premise is that low verbal ability is a criminogenic risk factor that is in part an outcome of exposure to neighborhood and family disadvantages. Analysis of the 1997 National Longitudinal Survey of Youth reveals that verbal ability has direct and indirect effects (through school achievement) on violence, provides a partial explanation for the racial disparity, and mediates the effect of socioeconomic disadvantage at the neighborhood level. Results support the view that neighborhood and family disadvantages have repercussions for the acquisition of verbal ability, which, in turn, serves as a protective factor against violence. We conclude that explanation of the race difference is best conceived as originating from the segregation of Blacks in disadvantaged contexts.

Duration-Weighted Exposure to Neighborhood Disadvantage and Racial-Ethnic Differences in Adolescent Sexual Behavior

Journal of Health and Social Behavior

Racial-ethnic disparities in adolescent sexual risk behavior are associated with health dispariti... more Racial-ethnic disparities in adolescent sexual risk behavior are associated with health disparities during adulthood and are therefore important to understand. Some scholars argue that neighborhood disadvantage induces disparities, yet prior research is mixed. We extend neighborhood-effects research by addressing long-term exposure to neighborhood disadvantage and estimation bias resulting from inclusion of time-varying covariates. Drawing from the Fragile Families and Child Well-Being Study, we compare a point-in-time proximal measure of neighborhood disadvantage with a duration-weighted measure using marginal structural models with inverse probability of treatment weights. Findings indicate that multiracial, non-Hispanic black, and Hispanic youth exhibit significantly higher sexual risk and duration-weighted exposure to neighborhood disadvantage than non-Hispanic white adolescents. Duration-weighted exposure is a better predictor of sexual initiation and number of partners by age ...

Neighborhoods and Racial/Ethnic Disparities in Adolescent Sexual Risk Behavior

Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 2013

Understanding the determinants of racial/ethnic disparities in adolescent sexual risk behavior is... more Understanding the determinants of racial/ethnic disparities in adolescent sexual risk behavior is important given its links to the differential risk of teen pregnancy, childbearing, and sexually transmitted infections. This article tests a contextual model that emphasizes the concentration of neighborhood disadvantage in shaping racial/ethnic disparities in sexual risk behavior. We focus on two risk behaviors that are prevalent among Black and Hispanic youth: the initiation of sexual activity in adolescence and the number of sex partners. Using data from the 1997 National Longitudinal Study of Youth (N = 6,985; 48% female; 57% non-Hispanic White) evidence indicates that neighborhood disadvantage -measured by concentrated poverty, unemployment rates, and the proportion of female-headed households -partially explains Black and Hispanic disparities from Whites in the odds of adolescent sexual debut, although the prevalence of femaleheaded households in neighborhoods appears to be the main driver in this domain. Likewise, accounting for neighborhood disadvantage reduces the Black-White and Hispanic-White disparity in the number of sexual partners, although less so relative to sexual debut. We discuss theoretical and practical implications of these findings.

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