Sara Langston

Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University, Commercial Space Operations, Faculty Member

The University of Sydney, Unit for History and Philosophy of Science, PhD Graduate/ Lawyer

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Thought artist and globe-trotting US Army veteran, lawyer, consultant, aerospace strategist, writer, university professor, and research analyst.My research, books, publications and work projects cover space law, science policy, bioethics for space, space environmental ethics, medical risks for commercial spacefarers, legal and cultural implications of commercializing space, and the comparative identity of an 'astronaut.'

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Papers by Sara Langston

Legal and Ethical Considerations for Policing Nongovernmental Actors in Space

The increasing scope of private actors engaging in the use and exploration of outer space, now an... more The increasing scope of private actors engaging in the use and exploration of outer space, now and in the future, is proffering a myriad of activities directed towards and conducted in outer space. These include human space transportation, space resource utilization, space tourism, space stations and prospective human settlements, as well as an influx of supporting space-based assets and platforms. Consequently, it is likely that as access to space opens and the number of multi-national/ multi-cultural space actors expands, the interests and concerns for protecting the rights, safety and security of these nongovernmental entities and their agents will become a priority. Three primary questions are raised here concerning outer space: (1) Under the current space law regime (and in light of the extreme space environment), what practical, legal and ethical mechanisms may be employed by space actors to police and protect their safety, security and interests while guarding against conflict; (2) Particularly, to what extent would such policing or protection measures be deemed ‘non-aggressive’ and in compliance with the current space legal framework; and (3) What protocols/guidelines can nongovernmental actors apply if conflict ensues between space actors. The purpose of this work is two-fold. First, this paper will address the intention and scope of public/private safety, security and law enforcement, as well as lay the foundation for the application of law and long-arm jurisdiction over private space actors off-Earth. Here we also raise pertinent ethical issues, challenges and concerns and identify where law, policy or normative frameworks are silent, inadequate or lacking for space. Secondly, this paper will address analogies and trends for nongovernmental entities (e.g. long-distance corporations historically and common carriers today) in regard to private enforcement protocols for public safety, security and managing conflict, highlighting comparisons and distinctive concerns particular to space. In conclusion, we will highlight pertinent issues for consideration in the application of safety and security practices for private entities and persons in space, as well as optimal mechanisms and recommendations looking forward

Introduction to Space Law and Emerging Issues

Space law refers to the body of law governing space related activities. These include activities ... more Space law refers to the body of law governing space related activities. These include activities conducted in space as well as activities directed towards space and from space. This presentation will first provide an overview of the 5 UN treaties and 5 sets of international principles that constitute the corpus juris spatialis. In practice, today\u27s lawyers also face greater legal complexities with the wide range of space activities and growing number of governmental and nongovernmental entities in space. Here we will address current examples and challenges highlighting some of these legal issues going forward

Access Mars: Assessing Cave Capabilities Establishing Specific Solutions: Final Report

The human race has evolved, grown and expanded through the exploration of Earth. After initial st... more The human race has evolved, grown and expanded through the exploration of Earth. After initial steps on the Moon, our next challenge is to explore the solar system. Mars shows potential for both scientific discovery and future human settlement, and so is a prime candidate for the next leap of human exploration. Such a bold endeavor will be a driver for an unprecedented worldwide cooperative effort and the catalyst for a new era of international, intercultural and interdisciplinary human relations. Scientific and technological progress will also accelerate as mankind is ushered into a new era of space exploration. Currently proposed Mars missions have identified a number of challenges such as high levels of radiation, harsh climate and limited launch windows. Recently discovered lava tubes on Mars present potential solutions to some of these issues, but raise a variety of intriguing new challenges. These encompass not only technological and engineering considerations, but also legal, ethical and societal issues such as planetary protection and crew safety. This report assesses the feasibility of overcoming such challenges through the exploitation of Mars caves. This report reviews existing reference missions and identifies areas of further research essential for adapting mission architectures to utilize caves. Cave suitability is considered with respect to size, type, location and their potential to mitigate hazards. They are also assessed with respect to their potential for scientific work adhering to astrobiology guidelines and the search for extraterrestrial life. This report compares surface and subsurface habitat options. Engineering challenges arising from the use of caves are addressed along with proposals for alternate architecture solutions. Mission analysis is conducted to determine the transit trajectory and define two possible mission scenarios with surface crews of 6 and 12 crew members. Different types of habitat are described and evaluated. An architecture for precursor missions is provided utilizing surface rovers, cargo delivery rovers and pressurized human transport vehicles. The implications of sub-surface operations on thermal control, communications and power systems are investigated with recommendations given. Crew selection, training methods and life support system solutions are also addressed.

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Space Security and Gender: Incorporating the Gender Perspective into Decision-Making Processes

Dr Sara Langston discussed the importance of including the gender perspective in decision-making ... more Dr Sara Langston discussed the importance of including the gender perspective in decision-making processes for space activities. This included all areas, such as government and civil, peaceful and security related. She stated that values impacted the way people pursued their goals, and more role models were therefore needed in space activities. Women, in particular, offered forward thinking on numerous fronts, introducing a distinct form of problem analysis from that of men. While great minds often think alike, they also think differently. The gender perspective was about introducing a different way of thinking to long-standing debates. Ms Langston outlined four ways in which greater gender representation could help discussions on space security: i) increased interpersonal communications, ii) finding alternative ways to bridge differences of opinions, iii) creative thinking, and iv) collaborative thinking. Furthermore, she stressed the need to examine precisely how data is shared and disseminated, with particular attention being paid to who is receiving the data and who is making decisions based thereon. --From the Conference report

Space Exploration and Ethics

Space Exploration: An Interdisciplinary Approach to Understanding Norms and Ethics in Space

Space education: challenges and strategies in teaching space policy to technical university students

4th Symposium on Space Educational Activities

Law and policy provide the foundation for space actors engaging in space activities. Likewise, va... more Law and policy provide the foundation for space actors engaging in space activities. Likewise, various levels of policy and regulation apply internationally, domestically, and even institutionally to both governmental and nongovernmental entities. Consequently, teaching the policy frameworks for space regulations and best practices is essential for a comprehensive university curriculum in space education. Challenges arise, however, when instructing technical and non-policy university students in humanities-centered topics. Reading comprehension, writing ability, critical thinking, and communication skills are critical elements of policy education, yet many technically oriented students struggle with these requirements. Given these are fundamental skillsets necessary for success in both academia and a dynamic space work force, adapting traditional teaching methodologies may be required to optimize desired learning outcomes for technical student audiences. Customizable strategies exis...

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Manfred Lachs and His Writings on the Law of Outer Space

A Chronological Survey of the Development of Art. IX of the Outer Space Treaty

Journal of Space Law: Supplement, 2010

The information provided in the survey lists in chronological order the summarized statements and... more The information provided in the survey lists in chronological order the summarized statements and declarations that each Nation – State or nongovernmental organization made to the UN Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space Legal Subcommittee during the drafting years. The legal questions raised in these records of negotiation concerning Article IX began with “principle 6” of the Soviet Proposal for a Declaration of the Basic Principles Governing the Activities of States pertaining to the Exploration and Use of Outer Space in early 1962. This proposed principle evolved into “Principle 6” of the Declaration of Legal Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space unanimously adopted by the General Assembly in 1963. Further negotiations in the Legal Subcommittee led to early elements of the principle being contained in “Article VIII” of the revised Soviet Draft Treaty Governing the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, The Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, and “Article 10” of the U.S. Draft Treaty Governing the Exploration of the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, submitted in 1966. Eventually these draft articles were consolidated by the Legal Working Group L.9 and adopted, thus establishing Article IX of the Outer Space Treaty

Astronaut 2.0": Connecting the Physical and Social Perceptions on Human Identity, Form and Function in Space to Define the Parameters of Space Faring Individuals

International Astronautical Congress (IAC) 2017, 2017

This paper and presentation follows up on discussions started by the authors in their IAC 2014 pa... more This paper and presentation follows up on discussions started by the authors in their IAC 2014 paper: “What is in a name? Perceived identity, classification, philosophy, and implied duty of the ‘astronaut’.” Building on this foundation we continue the conversation beyond the origins and implications of defining an ‘astronaut’ and further lead the discussion on questions, perspectives and even controversies encom- passing the prospective space roles for the new commercial space age. The significance of this discussion, as demonstrated in our previous research, is that public and political conceptions and perceptions of what identifies a person as an ‘astronaut’ both informs and impacts human communications, societal expectations and actions in regard to that identity. Specifically, through an original and creative presentation we will connect the dots and highlight the intricate ecosystem of relevant physical, social and political questions and factors with regard to an ‘astronaut’s’ identity and provide a comprehensive framework of the actors, approaches, linguistics and implications involved. These issues may include: 1) Distinguishing nongovernmental from governmental astronauts, commercial crew from spaceflight participants, and permanent versus transitory actors in space. 2) Distinguishing human astronauts from nonhumans - such as robotic envoys, artificial in- telli- gence, other animals, and potential “Chewbacca’s” (non-terrestrial space farers); distinguishing the human astronaut from technological artifacts (spacesuit/spacecraft). 3) Evaluating notions of ‘trans-humanism’ for spaceflight: adapting and/or enhancing humans for space - the range of medical implications here can range from minimal physiological intervention to science fiction. 4) Identifying the moral values and policy frameworks triggered by these actual/prospective human space activities. The ultimate objective of this paper and presentation is to create an open space for dialogue and to foster an informed and multidisciplinary conversation on humanity’s identity, form and function in space, today and in the future.

Commercial space travel understanding the legal, ethical and medical implications for commercial spaceflight participants and crew

2017 8th International Conference on Recent Advances in Space Technologies (RAST), 2017

Commercial human spaceflight raises numerous medical, legal and ethical considerations with regar... more Commercial human spaceflight raises numerous medical, legal and ethical considerations with regard to the health and safety of civilian spaceflight participants (SFPs) and commercial crew. New and emerging space transportation companies are proposing a range of commercial suborbital, orbital, interplanetary and point-to-point space transportation. However, the diversity in mission architecture, operation, flight purpose and duration make it difficult to establish a solitary risk assessment or approach towards spaceflight as a homogeneous activity. Even after 50 years in space, there is no denying that a great deal of scientific, technological and medical uncertainty exists with spaceflight. While some hazards have been identified (e.g. acceleration, microgravity, radiation and meteorites), physiological risks and uncertainties for spacefarers remain and are accentuated in opening space access to a wide demographic of individuals with varying levels of fitness and no standardized medical criteria for selection. In addition, the scope of physiological risks spans pre-flight, in-flight and post-flight operations and activities this in turn triggers practical mitigation measures and bioethical-legal duties, such as full disclosure and informed consent. This paper will provide an overview of the applicable laws, underlying values and duties of care intertwined with spaceflight and addresses prominent concerns of medical uncertainty and human risk factors. The aim of which is to assist in establishing a practical, prudent and sustainable framework for human expansion into space.

Developing space: political and socio-economic rationales of emerging space programs

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Reimagining Icarus: Defining the physical, cultural, legal and ethical parameters for human spaceflight

Commercial human spaceflight inherently raises numerous medical, legal and ethical considerations... more Commercial human spaceflight inherently raises numerous medical, legal and ethical considerations with regard to the health and safety of civilian spaceflight participants (SFPs) and commercial crew. Nascent and emerging space companies are currently proposing a diverse range of commercial suborbital, orbital and eventually point-to-point transportation services that challenge the status quo of transportation service providers today. Bioethical and legal issues therefore arise throughout the course of private/commercial (nongovernmental) spaceflight activities to include preflight selection procedures, medical monitoring, and informed consent among others. In addition, concerns involving medical, technological and scientific uncertainty raise issues in developing effective governance for spaceflight. This is particularly evident with regard to how to regulate innovative space technologies and mission architectures, establishing appropriate risk assessment and management procedures, incorporating moral decision-making frameworks into commercial spaceflight operations, and understanding the cultural values and moral relationships inherent to these space actors, the general public, and prospective space activities. This thesis raises pertinent issues, arguments, implications and applicable approaches for commercial human spaceflight to better assist in establishing a foundation for dynamic and forward-looking ethical, legal and practical frameworks on spaceflight and human expansion into space

New space development - the political and legal landscape for emerging actors

Space Travel: Risk, Ethics, and Governance in Commercial Human Spaceflight

New Space, 2016

Abstract Human spaceflight presents new challenges for traditional approaches to risk assessment.... more Abstract Human spaceflight presents new challenges for traditional approaches to risk assessment. From the onset human, spaceflight has been recognized as an inherently dangerous activity. Consequently, U.S. laws and regulations have grown in tandem with space launch activities and operations to protect public health and safety. The recent development of the commercial space transportation industry is now seeing the burden of risk shift from government and government-sponsored missions to private commercial entities and individuals, and yet ethical frameworks are lacking for the private space sector. Opening access to space to the public inherently raises novel concerns for increased risk awareness, communication, and management among commercial entities and voluntary participants. This also highlights the need for evaluating and clarifying social perspectives on issues of risk, uncertainty, and standardization. This article offers a multidisciplinary analysis in ethics, law, and business organization to ...

What is in a name? Perceived identity, classification, philosophy, and implied duty of the ‘astronaut’

Acta Astronautica, 2015

Introduction.-La dysplasie de trochlée est un des éléments majeurs de l'instabilité fémoropatella... more Introduction.-La dysplasie de trochlée est un des éléments majeurs de l'instabilité fémoropatellaire. Si sa correction par trochléoplastie apparaît logique, le résultat à long terme de cette intervention n'est pas connu et il persiste une incertitude sur l'évolution arthrosique. Aussi, nous avons mené une étude rétrospective d'une série de trochléoplasties de creusement au recul de 15 ans avec pour objectifs : (1) d'évaluer à long terme les résultats cliniques et le taux radiologique d'arthrose ; (2) de préciser les résultats en fonction du type d'instabilité et du grade de la dysplasie. Hypothèse.-La trochléoplastie de creusement est une intervention efficace sur la stabilisation de l'articulation fémoropatellaire sans augmenter le risque d'arthrose. Patients et méthodes.-Cette étude analyse rétrospectivement 34 trochléoplasties de creusement au moyen de scores cliniques (scores IKS, Lillois, Kujala et Oxford) et leurs résultats radiologiques (stade d'arthrose selon Iwano) au recul moyen de 15 ans (12-19 ans). Une plastie d'Insall était associée systématiquement et une transposition de la tubérosité tibiale antérieure dans 17 cas (7 transpositions préalables). Résultats.-Aucune récidive d'instabilité objective n'a été observée. Six genoux ont été repris par prothèse pour arthrose et un par transposition de la tubérosité tibiale pour douleur et dérobements au recul moyen de 7 ans (2-16). Les scores moyens Lillois, Kujala et IKS passaient respectivement de 53,3 (30-92), 55 (13-75) et 127 (54-184) en préopératoire à 61,5 (25-93), 76 (51-94) et 152,4 (66-200) au recul (p < 0,05) (reprises incluses). Les résultats fonctionnels étaient significativement meilleurs pour les dysplasies avec éperon (score IKS 168 [127-200] versus 153 [98-198] et Kujula 81,5 [51-98] versus 76 [51-94] [p < 0,05]). Les patients étaient satisfaits dans 65 % des cas et le score Oxford total moyen étaient de 24,1 points/60 (12-45 points). La douleur était occasionnelle ou nulle dans 53 % des cas. La saillie de la trochlée passait de 4,9 mm (3-9 mm) à −1,2 mm (−7-4 mm). L'arthrose fémoropatellaire, 10 cas en préopératoire mais aucune > Iwano 2, était présente dans 33/34 cas avec 20 cas > Iwano 2 (65 %) au recul. Discussion.-La trochléoplastie de creusement permet la stabilité fémoropatellaire même en cas de dysplasie sévère pour lesquelles elle donne de meilleurs résultats fonctionnels à long terme. En revanche, elle ne prévient pas l'arthrose fémoropatellaire. Elle doit être réservée aux dysplasies sévères avec éperon en l'associant à des gestes de réalignement de l'appareil extenseur. Niveau de preuve.-IV, étude rétrospective de cohorte.

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Evaluating International Collaboration for Human Exploration beyond LEO

Over 50 governments, intergovernmental organizations, non-governmental organizations, and private... more Over 50 governments, intergovernmental organizations, non-governmental organizations, and private institutions are directly involved in space activities. These actors have different rationales for pursuing space-related activities and can play complementary roles in achieving ambitious space exploration efforts, which are increasingly costprohibitive for individual actors. Given this context, a multi-national and multi-cultural team with expertise in different fields of space exploration, led by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and the Skolkovo Institute of Science and Technology, developed a framework for evaluating sustainable international space exploration endeavors. The proposed framework attempts to objectively evaluate partnerships by defining evaluation metrics that consider the technical and non-technical parameters that influence future mission success. It is based on four abstractions: mission architecture, required technological capabilities, relevant participat...

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Establishing A New International Space Cooperation Mechanism For Protecting World Heritage Sites

International agreements and conventions are a traditional source of international law that can b... more International agreements and conventions are a traditional source of international law that can be applied effectively to enhance peaceful cooperation among States. Individual States negotiate these agreements based on national policies and existing international frameworks with the objective of securing political promises for conforming State conduct on certain issues. International organisations, such as UNESCO, also utilize and apply these political strategies in order to fulfil their missions. A new trend is emerging, however, toward creating soft law agreements and volunteer partnerships—something that is becoming more evident especially in the space sector. Significantly, these new flexible frameworks for space agreements on space technology and data exchange are pushing international cooperation even further, to include both State and non-State partners. The Open Initiative is one prototype space framework that successfully works to expand the scope and network of space actor...

The Progressive Use of Satellite Technology for Disaster Management Relief: Challenges to a Legal and Policy Framework

All countries, even rich ones, are vulnerable to natural disasters. While this may not be avoidab... more All countries, even rich ones, are vulnerable to natural disasters. While this may not be avoidable the impacts on affected populations can be minimized through implementing an efficient disaster management policy. This is particularly significant given that the cost to human life and the economy rises each year, regardless of how many natural disasters occur per annum. For instance, 244 million victims were impacted by natural disasters in 2011, compared with 217 million victims in 2010. In 2011 an estimated US$366 billion was incurred in damages. This is three times the damages incurred in 2010, which was registered at US$109 billion. Consequently, national governments and the international community have recognized the necessity of using all available assets and means for effectuating a more progressive disaster management practice. Remote sensing technologies, in particular, have proven to be a most useful tool and have been utilized in several natural disasters situations, such as the Sichuan Earthquake in China in 2008, the Honshu Tsunami in Japan in 2011, and Hurricane Sandy in the US in 2012. Many challenges still remain before these satellite applications can be made widely accessible to all nations for disaster management. This paper identifies ongoing challenges in space policy and law, correlating remote sensing practices, and data sharing issues for humanitarian relief following natural disasters. This paper concludes that, a new policy framework should be developed specific to the application of satellite technologies for disaster management.

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Space Medicine: Bioethical and Legal Considerations for Commercial Human Spaceflight

Sara Langston

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