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Table 1 The context, object, corrosion state, elemental and lead isotope data for the studied samples

Table 1 The context, object, corrosion state, elemental and lead isotope data for the studied samples

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Figure 1 The regions, countries and sites mentioned in the text. Mainland South-East Asia comprises Cambodia, Laos peninsular Malaysia, Myanmar, Singapore, Thailand and Vietnam; Island South-East Asia includes Brunei, Eas Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines and Timor Leste. Indonesia is shaded and other nations are outlined. The three known prehistoric South-East Asian copper-producing centres are as follows: 1, Phu Lon; 2, Khao Wong Prachan Valley, 3, Sepon. Khao Sam Kaeo (4) is indicated as the most comprehensively studied Mainland site involved in early trans: Asian exchange systems. 5, Batujaya; 6-7, Sembiran and Pacung (see the detailed map in Figure 3). [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
Figure 1 The regions, countries and sites mentioned in the text. Mainland South-East Asia comprises Cambodia, Laos peninsular Malaysia, Myanmar, Singapore, Thailand and Vietnam; Island South-East Asia includes Brunei, Eas Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines and Timor Leste. Indonesia is shaded and other nations are outlined. The three known prehistoric South-East Asian copper-producing centres are as follows: 1, Phu Lon; 2, Khao Wong Prachan Valley, 3, Sepon. Khao Sam Kaeo (4) is indicated as the most comprehensively studied Mainland site involved in early trans: Asian exchange systems. 5, Batujaya; 6-7, Sembiran and Pacung (see the detailed map in Figure 3). [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
‘igure 2. The studied sites on the north coast of Bali. [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com] Keinecke ef al. ZUU9; Dussubieux ef al. 2012). Conversely, Island South-East Asia’s role in these exchanges has been, until recently, far less well understood, in particular that of the region’s largest and most populous country, Indonesia. By returning between 2012 and 2015 to the promising area of Pacung and Sembiran identified in 1987, and to Pangkung Paruk, identified in 2009 (Gede 2009), the ‘Archaeology of the North Coast of Bali: a Strategic Crossroads in Early Trans-Asiatic Exchange’ (or ‘ANCB’) project aimed to bring the full panoply of archaeological and archaeometric techniques to bear in eluci- dating the connectedness and socio-economic participation of the central part of the Indonesian archipelago. In particular, substantial quantities of Indian ‘Rouletted Ware’, a fine black pottery, found at the sites of Pacung and Sembiran, together with recent compositional data from glass and semi-precious stone beads, archaeobotanical and zooarchaeological evidence, strongly indi- cated continuous intensive contacts with the Indian subcontinent from the second century BC to the second century AD (Ardika et al. 1993; Calo et al. 2015; Fenner et al. 2017). Rouletted Ware in second- to first-century BC contexts in Indonesia is also known from the site of Batujaya in north-west Java (Manguin and Indradjaya 2011). The ANCB project also produced new compo- sitional evidence for Indian glass in first-century BC contexts at the burial complex of Gilimanuk in north-west Bali (Fig. 2), while Sembiran and the second- to third-century AD stone sarcopha- gus burial site of Pangkung Paruk, the project’s other main site in north-central Bali, also yielded
‘igure 2. The studied sites on the north coast of Bali. [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com] Keinecke ef al. ZUU9; Dussubieux ef al. 2012). Conversely, Island South-East Asia’s role in these exchanges has been, until recently, far less well understood, in particular that of the region’s largest and most populous country, Indonesia. By returning between 2012 and 2015 to the promising area of Pacung and Sembiran identified in 1987, and to Pangkung Paruk, identified in 2009 (Gede 2009), the ‘Archaeology of the North Coast of Bali: a Strategic Crossroads in Early Trans-Asiatic Exchange’ (or ‘ANCB’) project aimed to bring the full panoply of archaeological and archaeometric techniques to bear in eluci- dating the connectedness and socio-economic participation of the central part of the Indonesian archipelago. In particular, substantial quantities of Indian ‘Rouletted Ware’, a fine black pottery, found at the sites of Pacung and Sembiran, together with recent compositional data from glass and semi-precious stone beads, archaeobotanical and zooarchaeological evidence, strongly indi- cated continuous intensive contacts with the Indian subcontinent from the second century BC to the second century AD (Ardika et al. 1993; Calo et al. 2015; Fenner et al. 2017). Rouletted Ware in second- to first-century BC contexts in Indonesia is also known from the site of Batujaya in north-west Java (Manguin and Indradjaya 2011). The ANCB project also produced new compo- sitional evidence for Indian glass in first-century BC contexts at the burial complex of Gilimanuk in north-west Bali (Fig. 2), while Sembiran and the second- to third-century AD stone sarcopha- gus burial site of Pangkung Paruk, the project’s other main site in north-central Bali, also yielded
Figure 3 A plan of the excavations at Pacung and Sembiran (Calo et al. 2015, fig. 2). [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
Figure 3 A plan of the excavations at Pacung and Sembiran (Calo et al. 2015, fig. 2). [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
Figure 4 The Manikliyu drum burial excavation in 1997 (Gede 1997, in Calo 2014). [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
Figure 4 The Manikliyu drum burial excavation in 1997 (Gede 1997, in Calo 2014). [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
Figure 5 mages of the studied artefacts from the north coast of Bali, where available. [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com] used as a primary burial container next to a stone sarcophagus burial (Fig. 4). The drum is stylis- tically unique to Bali and Java, from where a total of 21 examples of the ‘Pejeng type’ are known (Calo 2014). Four large stone casting mould fragments for this type of drum at Manuaba in cen- tral Bali (Bernet Kempers 1988), and of a smaller stone mould fragment excavated in a first- century AD context at Sembiran, near the previous chance find in 1978 of a large drum of this type at adjacent Pacung (Widia 1981; McConnell and Glover 1990; Ardika and Bellwood 1991), indicated the presence of a Balinese bronze casting tradition, perhaps inspired by
Figure 5 mages of the studied artefacts from the north coast of Bali, where available. [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com] used as a primary burial container next to a stone sarcophagus burial (Fig. 4). The drum is stylis- tically unique to Bali and Java, from where a total of 21 examples of the ‘Pejeng type’ are known (Calo 2014). Four large stone casting mould fragments for this type of drum at Manuaba in cen- tral Bali (Bernet Kempers 1988), and of a smaller stone mould fragment excavated in a first- century AD context at Sembiran, near the previous chance find in 1978 of a large drum of this type at adjacent Pacung (Widia 1981; McConnell and Glover 1990; Ardika and Bellwood 1991), indicated the presence of a Balinese bronze casting tradition, perhaps inspired by
Figure 6A /ead isotope ratio biplot showing the complete Bali data set against the known Mainland South-East Asian prehistoric copper-producing centres, the Khao Wong Prachan Valley in central Thailand, Phu Lon in north-eastern Thailand and Sepon in central Laos. Data from Pryce et al. (2014). [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
Figure 6A /ead isotope ratio biplot showing the complete Bali data set against the known Mainland South-East Asian prehistoric copper-producing centres, the Khao Wong Prachan Valley in central Thailand, Phu Lon in north-eastern Thailand and Sepon in central Laos. Data from Pryce et al. (2014). [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
Figure 7A /ead isotope ratio biplot showing the Bali high-tin bronze bowl sample (SEALIP/ID/PKP/3) against the full regional high-tin bronze database and the known Mainland South-East Asian prehistoric copper-producing centres. Data from Pryce et al. (2014, 2017) and Pryce and Bellina (2018). [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com] he high-tin bronze bowl from Pangkung Paruk presents an interesting example. It was reported 1 2009 to have been found, by the landowner of the site, together with two Chinese bronze mir- ors (see below), in a stone sarcophagus burial that was later excavated by the Bali Institute of rchaeology (Gede 2009). The bowl’s elemental composition and decoration are both consistent ith it being identified as an ‘Indian’ import but its lead isotope ratios are at variance with most f the SEALIP high-tin bronze database (Fig. 7; Pryce and Bellina 2018). Most of the high-tin ronze bowls currently known were found in South-East Asia but production is claimed in idia from the eighth century BC (Srinivasan 2010). However, the potential Indian copper (and n) sources and the necessary highly specialized workshops from c. 2000 years ago are currently nknown. The high-tin bronze lead isotope patterning is also quite strange and, at present, unex- lained, in that most samples fall on an axis that extends to some highly radiogenic examples “ig. 7). Pryce et al. (2014) have suggested that such a data distribution might come about if VO Copper sources were mixed, with one of them being in association with a uranium deposit; uggesting the Singhbhum range of Jharkhand state as a possibility. High-tin bowls plotting on 1is axis were found in peninsular and western Thailand and West Bengal but, critically, the Thai eninsular sites also present evidence for high-tin bronze production: crucible-based cassiterite ementation at Khao Sam Kaeo (Murillo-Barroso et a/. 2010) and casting at nearby Khao Sek Pryce and Bellina 2018). Peninsular Thailand, like neighbouring peninsular Myanmar and falaysia, hosts some of the richest tin deposits in the Old World, which may or may not be a oincidence. The SEALIP high-tin database also suggests a second axis/third source area with cluster of samples that includes the Pangkung Paruk bowl. The samples do not plot very close ygether, but include bowls from northern Vietnam, peninsular Thailand, Sri Lanka and West
Figure 7A /ead isotope ratio biplot showing the Bali high-tin bronze bowl sample (SEALIP/ID/PKP/3) against the full regional high-tin bronze database and the known Mainland South-East Asian prehistoric copper-producing centres. Data from Pryce et al. (2014, 2017) and Pryce and Bellina (2018). [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com] he high-tin bronze bowl from Pangkung Paruk presents an interesting example. It was reported 1 2009 to have been found, by the landowner of the site, together with two Chinese bronze mir- ors (see below), in a stone sarcophagus burial that was later excavated by the Bali Institute of rchaeology (Gede 2009). The bowl’s elemental composition and decoration are both consistent ith it being identified as an ‘Indian’ import but its lead isotope ratios are at variance with most f the SEALIP high-tin bronze database (Fig. 7; Pryce and Bellina 2018). Most of the high-tin ronze bowls currently known were found in South-East Asia but production is claimed in idia from the eighth century BC (Srinivasan 2010). However, the potential Indian copper (and n) sources and the necessary highly specialized workshops from c. 2000 years ago are currently nknown. The high-tin bronze lead isotope patterning is also quite strange and, at present, unex- lained, in that most samples fall on an axis that extends to some highly radiogenic examples “ig. 7). Pryce et al. (2014) have suggested that such a data distribution might come about if VO Copper sources were mixed, with one of them being in association with a uranium deposit; uggesting the Singhbhum range of Jharkhand state as a possibility. High-tin bowls plotting on 1is axis were found in peninsular and western Thailand and West Bengal but, critically, the Thai eninsular sites also present evidence for high-tin bronze production: crucible-based cassiterite ementation at Khao Sam Kaeo (Murillo-Barroso et a/. 2010) and casting at nearby Khao Sek Pryce and Bellina 2018). Peninsular Thailand, like neighbouring peninsular Myanmar and falaysia, hosts some of the richest tin deposits in the Old World, which may or may not be a oincidence. The SEALIP high-tin database also suggests a second axis/third source area with cluster of samples that includes the Pangkung Paruk bowl. The samples do not plot very close ygether, but include bowls from northern Vietnam, peninsular Thailand, Sri Lanka and West
Figure 8 A /ead isotope ratio biplot showing the Bali leaded high-tin bronze mirror sample (SEALIP/ID/PKP/2) against regional and Japanese examples of Han leaded high-tin bronze mirrors and the known Mainland South-East Asian pre- historic copper-producing centres. Data from Mabuchi et al. (1985) and Pryce et al. (2014). [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com] Next, we will consider SEALIP/ID/PKP/2, the leaded high-tin bronze mirror, also from Pangkung Paruk. This mirror, which can be stylistically identified as Han Dynasty Chinese (Fig. 5), is certainly consistent from the point of view of its elemental composition (Table 1) but the lead isotope signature is more complicated. Fascinatingly, it was appreciated in the 1980s that the isotope ratios of Han Dynasty Chinese mirrors found in contemporary Yayoi- period Japanese tombs varied in accordance with their date attribution (Mabuchi ef al. 1985). Mirrors that were stylistically attributed to, in chronological order, the Western Han (206 BC to AD 9), Transitional Period (AD 9-24) and Eastern Han (AD 25-220) periods were produced with lead from isotopically distinct sources. That is, Han artefacts of unknown or uncertain attribution could be analysed and their lead isotope ratios would reveal or confirm their cultural origin. This approach has worked convincingly with the few Han Chinese bowls and mirrors analysed from Mainland South-East Asia (Pryce et al. 2014), but when we add the Pangkung Paruk example to the database we see that it does not fit (Fig. 8). SEALIP/ID/PKP/2 was obviously produced with highly radiogenic lead, and not that typically used for Han Dynasty Chinese metal artefacts. China does indeed host some highly radiogenic lead deposits (Zhu 1995) but we are unaware of their association with Han period metal production. As such, we are unable to offer a more complete interpretation of this enigmatic mirror.
Figure 8 A /ead isotope ratio biplot showing the Bali leaded high-tin bronze mirror sample (SEALIP/ID/PKP/2) against regional and Japanese examples of Han leaded high-tin bronze mirrors and the known Mainland South-East Asian pre- historic copper-producing centres. Data from Mabuchi et al. (1985) and Pryce et al. (2014). [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com] Next, we will consider SEALIP/ID/PKP/2, the leaded high-tin bronze mirror, also from Pangkung Paruk. This mirror, which can be stylistically identified as Han Dynasty Chinese (Fig. 5), is certainly consistent from the point of view of its elemental composition (Table 1) but the lead isotope signature is more complicated. Fascinatingly, it was appreciated in the 1980s that the isotope ratios of Han Dynasty Chinese mirrors found in contemporary Yayoi- period Japanese tombs varied in accordance with their date attribution (Mabuchi ef al. 1985). Mirrors that were stylistically attributed to, in chronological order, the Western Han (206 BC to AD 9), Transitional Period (AD 9-24) and Eastern Han (AD 25-220) periods were produced with lead from isotopically distinct sources. That is, Han artefacts of unknown or uncertain attribution could be analysed and their lead isotope ratios would reveal or confirm their cultural origin. This approach has worked convincingly with the few Han Chinese bowls and mirrors analysed from Mainland South-East Asia (Pryce et al. 2014), but when we add the Pangkung Paruk example to the database we see that it does not fit (Fig. 8). SEALIP/ID/PKP/2 was obviously produced with highly radiogenic lead, and not that typically used for Han Dynasty Chinese metal artefacts. China does indeed host some highly radiogenic lead deposits (Zhu 1995) but we are unaware of their association with Han period metal production. As such, we are unable to offer a more complete interpretation of this enigmatic mirror.
Figure 9 A micrograph mosaic of drum mantle SEALIP/ID/ML/5, showing a complete cut through the shoulder at 50* magnification and detail of the joint’ at 100* and 200x magnification. The consistent grain size to either side shows the joint’ to be a crack or fissure. [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
Figure 9 A micrograph mosaic of drum mantle SEALIP/ID/ML/5, showing a complete cut through the shoulder at 50* magnification and detail of the joint’ at 100* and 200x magnification. The consistent grain size to either side shows the joint’ to be a crack or fissure. [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
Figure 10 A lead isotope ratio biplot showing the Bali leaded bronze drum sample (SEALIP/ID/ML/4-5) against regional examples of copper, bronze and leaded bronze drums and the known Mainland South-East Asian prehistoric copper-producing centres. Data from Pryce et al. (2014) and Pryce and Bellina (2018). [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
Figure 10 A lead isotope ratio biplot showing the Bali leaded bronze drum sample (SEALIP/ID/ML/4-5) against regional examples of copper, bronze and leaded bronze drums and the known Mainland South-East Asian prehistoric copper-producing centres. Data from Pryce et al. (2014) and Pryce and Bellina (2018). [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
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