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FIGURE 13 __ Data correlations of borehole log-ground-penetrating radar (GPR)-seismic tomogram (ST)-electric resistivity tomogram (ERT). The core log is obtained from GP1. The radargram is taken from Line-05 in close proximity. The ST profile is derived from Line-1 (Figure 12b), an the ERT profile is based on Line NS-11 (Figure 10a). Unit 1 and Unit 2 are correlated with Radar Facies A and ST's upper low-seismic layer. Unit 3 is correlated with Radar Facies B and ST's intermediate-velocity layer. Unit 4 is correlated with Radar Facies C and ST's high-velocity anomaly (LVA). The top of ERT's high-resistive anomaly (Layer-c) is aligned with the top of Unit 3's lower part (#3B and #3C) and the top of Facies B-2. [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]

Figure 13 __ Data correlations of borehole log-ground-penetrating radar (GPR)-seismic tomogram (ST)-electric resistivity tomogram (ERT). The core log is obtained from GP1. The radargram is taken from Line-05 in close proximity. The ST profile is derived from Line-1 (Figure 12b), an the ERT profile is based on Line NS-11 (Figure 10a). Unit 1 and Unit 2 are correlated with Radar Facies A and ST's upper low-seismic layer. Unit 3 is correlated with Radar Facies B and ST's intermediate-velocity layer. Unit 4 is correlated with Radar Facies C and ST's high-velocity anomaly (LVA). The top of ERT's high-resistive anomaly (Layer-c) is aligned with the top of Unit 3's lower part (#3B and #3C) and the top of Facies B-2. [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]

Related Figures (16)

FIGURE 1 (a) Aerial view of Gunung Padang taken from a helicopter. (b) Topography and site map generated from a detailed geodetic survey. (c) Geology map of the Gunung Padang region (Sudjatmiko, 1972). (d) Orthophoto map obtained from a drone survey conducted in 2014, indicating the locations of trenching sites (white rectangles) and core-drilling sites (red dots). T1, Terrace 1; T2, Terrace 2; T3, Terrace 3; T4, Terrace 4; T5, Terrace 5. [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
FIGURE 1 (a) Aerial view of Gunung Padang taken from a helicopter. (b) Topography and site map generated from a detailed geodetic survey. (c) Geology map of the Gunung Padang region (Sudjatmiko, 1972). (d) Orthophoto map obtained from a drone survey conducted in 2014, indicating the locations of trenching sites (white rectangles) and core-drilling sites (red dots). T1, Terrace 1; T2, Terrace 2; T3, Terrace 3; T4, Terrace 4; T5, Terrace 5. [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
FIGURE 3 _ Beta-2 cliff exposures on the west slope. (a) Field photo and interpreted stratigraphy of the subsurface layers. (b) Side view highlighting Unit 2 and its distinct boundary with the underlying Unit 3. (c) Plan view of Unit 2, showcasing the alignment of columnar rocks enclosed in a fine-grained mortar. (d) Photo displaying planar rock fragments inserted between columnar rocks. (e) Photo featuring a weathered vertical pillar composed of highly weathered columnar rocks surrounded by fine-grained materials. [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
FIGURE 3 _ Beta-2 cliff exposures on the west slope. (a) Field photo and interpreted stratigraphy of the subsurface layers. (b) Side view highlighting Unit 2 and its distinct boundary with the underlying Unit 3. (c) Plan view of Unit 2, showcasing the alignment of columnar rocks enclosed in a fine-grained mortar. (d) Photo displaying planar rock fragments inserted between columnar rocks. (e) Photo featuring a weathered vertical pillar composed of highly weathered columnar rocks surrounded by fine-grained materials. [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
FIGURE 4 __ Results of geo-archaeological trenching. (a) Fanta trench: A1. Columnar rock alignment visible on the surface of T2, A2. Oblique view revealing underground continuation of co umnar rock alignments (#2), A3. Front profile of #2 columnar rocks exhibiting various sizes and shapes, encased in a 5-cm-thick mortar. (b) Charlie1 trench on the east slope: B1. N7OE-oriented columnar rock alignment (#2) dipping 15° towards the slope, B2. Cross-section drawing of Charlie1 trench. (c) Trenching Echo2: C1. East-west cross-section drawing of Echo2 trench, C2. Oblique view displaying buried Unit 3 rock wal , C3. Front view of steep wall comprising highly weathered columnar rock alignment. (d) Delta trench on the south slope: D1. Drawing of the trench, D2. Photo revealing rounded, highly weathered rock fragments buried by homogeneous soil fill. (e) Trenching Charlie2 on the east slope: N7OE alignment of non-columnar, blocky rock fragments enclosed in mortar. FC-5, Charlie1-3,4,5, EM-4 and ES-1 represent samp! e locations for radiocarbon analysis. [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
FIGURE 4 __ Results of geo-archaeological trenching. (a) Fanta trench: A1. Columnar rock alignment visible on the surface of T2, A2. Oblique view revealing underground continuation of co umnar rock alignments (#2), A3. Front profile of #2 columnar rocks exhibiting various sizes and shapes, encased in a 5-cm-thick mortar. (b) Charlie1 trench on the east slope: B1. N7OE-oriented columnar rock alignment (#2) dipping 15° towards the slope, B2. Cross-section drawing of Charlie1 trench. (c) Trenching Echo2: C1. East-west cross-section drawing of Echo2 trench, C2. Oblique view displaying buried Unit 3 rock wal , C3. Front view of steep wall comprising highly weathered columnar rock alignment. (d) Delta trench on the south slope: D1. Drawing of the trench, D2. Photo revealing rounded, highly weathered rock fragments buried by homogeneous soil fill. (e) Trenching Charlie2 on the east slope: N7OE alignment of non-columnar, blocky rock fragments enclosed in mortar. FC-5, Charlie1-3,4,5, EM-4 and ES-1 represent samp! e locations for radiocarbon analysis. [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
FIGURE 6 Summary of all core logs showing stratigraphic units and their correlations. Descriptions of each rock unit can be found in Table 1. It should be noted that Unit 2 does not extend to T5 and Unit 3 is buried by ancient soil fills at T5. During GP4 drilling, a significant water loss of 32 000 L (32 m°) was observed between 8- and 14-m depth. Evidence of groundwater level was observed through water inflow at a depth of 17 to 20 m in GP1. [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
FIGURE 6 Summary of all core logs showing stratigraphic units and their correlations. Descriptions of each rock unit can be found in Table 1. It should be noted that Unit 2 does not extend to T5 and Unit 3 is buried by ancient soil fills at T5. During GP4 drilling, a significant water loss of 32 000 L (32 m°) was observed between 8- and 14-m depth. Evidence of groundwater level was observed through water inflow at a depth of 17 to 20 m in GP1. [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
TABLE 1. The classification of rock units based on comprehensive analysis and interpretation of the collected data obtained from boreholes, trenches and surface exposures.
TABLE 1. The classification of rock units based on comprehensive analysis and interpretation of the collected data obtained from boreholes, trenches and surface exposures.
TABLE 2_ The results of carbon dating analysis conducted as part of the study. The conventional 14C ages obtained from the samples have been calibrated to calendar ages using the OxCal software. The table provides an overview of the calibrated ages for the analysed samples, allowing for a more accurate understanding of the chronological timeline associated with the studied materials. For additional information and details regarding the carbon dating analysis, please refer to Figure SD.
TABLE 2_ The results of carbon dating analysis conducted as part of the study. The conventional 14C ages obtained from the samples have been calibrated to calendar ages using the OxCal software. The table provides an overview of the calibrated ages for the analysed samples, allowing for a more accurate understanding of the chronological timeline associated with the studied materials. For additional information and details regarding the carbon dating analysis, please refer to Figure SD.
FIGURE 7 The OxCal analysis of the multi-construction histories of the Gunung Padang pyramid, including soil-fill burials and time gaps between constructions. (a) Stratigraphic model and carbon-dating samples associated with each layer. (b) Results of the OxCal modelling, showing the estimated dates for each construction phase. (c) Summary of the OxCal analysis results, providing an overview of the chronology of the constructions. [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
FIGURE 7 The OxCal analysis of the multi-construction histories of the Gunung Padang pyramid, including soil-fill burials and time gaps between constructions. (a) Stratigraphic model and carbon-dating samples associated with each layer. (b) Results of the OxCal modelling, showing the estimated dates for each construction phase. (c) Summary of the OxCal analysis results, providing an overview of the chronology of the constructions. [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
FIGURE 8 _ Index map for shallow geophysical surveys. (a) Electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) survey lines with various electrode spacing, including 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8 and 10 m. The bold blue and green lines indicate the selected survey lines presented in Figure 10. (b) Ground-penetrating radar (GPR) survey lines using a 40-MHz MLF antenna, with the selected survey lines for Figure 9. [Colour figure can be viewed at wilevonlinelibrarv com]
FIGURE 8 _ Index map for shallow geophysical surveys. (a) Electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) survey lines with various electrode spacing, including 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8 and 10 m. The bold blue and green lines indicate the selected survey lines presented in Figure 10. (b) Ground-penetrating radar (GPR) survey lines using a 40-MHz MLF antenna, with the selected survey lines for Figure 9. [Colour figure can be viewed at wilevonlinelibrarv com]
FIGURE 9 Summary of GPR prospecting. (a) Selected short-line radargrams on terraces displaying detailed textures, patterns, polarities, GPR facies analysis and their correlations. (b) The mid-line, a principal radargram of the continuous longitudinal survey line that traverses the stone terraces. All radargrams have undergone filtering, convolution and migration processes. [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
FIGURE 9 Summary of GPR prospecting. (a) Selected short-line radargrams on terraces displaying detailed textures, patterns, polarities, GPR facies analysis and their correlations. (b) The mid-line, a principal radargram of the continuous longitudinal survey line that traverses the stone terraces. All radargrams have undergone filtering, convolution and migration processes. [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
TABLE 3_ The results of the radar facies analysis conducted on the radargrams obtained from the GPR survey using the MLF 40-MHz antenna. The table provides a classification and description of the various radar facies identified in the radargrams. Each radar facies is characterized by distinct textures, patterns and structures, allowing for a better understanding of the subsurface features and their interpretations. The table serves as a reference for the interpretation and analysis of the GPR data. The observed correlations between resistivity and the massive be categorized into four layers, designated as Layer-a, Layer-b,
TABLE 3_ The results of the radar facies analysis conducted on the radargrams obtained from the GPR survey using the MLF 40-MHz antenna. The table provides a classification and description of the various radar facies identified in the radargrams. Each radar facies is characterized by distinct textures, patterns and structures, allowing for a better understanding of the subsurface features and their interpretations. The table serves as a reference for the interpretation and analysis of the GPR data. The observed correlations between resistivity and the massive be categorized into four layers, designated as Layer-a, Layer-b,
FIGURE 10 = Summary of ERT prospecting. (a) Selected north-south longitudinal section with 2-m spacing electrodes, revealing resistivity- layer stratification and the presence of an extremely high resistive anomaly (EHRA) beneath T2. (b) Selected west-east section with 2-m spacing electrodes, illustrating the pyramidal shape of layers, the interpretative base of Layers a and b and a low-velocity zone in the centre, potentially indicating a soil-filled tunnel. (c) West-east section indicating the presence of neck volcanic intrusions of the massive andesite lava. (d) 2D line with 5-m spacing electrodes, providing an overview of the entire longitudinal section of Gunung Padang. (e) Combined profile of NS1, NS2 and NS3 survey lines on the east slope, parallel to the areas behind T-1, T-2 and T-3. (f) Examples of 1-m spacing ERT on the east slope, showcasing detailed subsurface structures. Complete datasets can be found in Figure SF. [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
FIGURE 10 = Summary of ERT prospecting. (a) Selected north-south longitudinal section with 2-m spacing electrodes, revealing resistivity- layer stratification and the presence of an extremely high resistive anomaly (EHRA) beneath T2. (b) Selected west-east section with 2-m spacing electrodes, illustrating the pyramidal shape of layers, the interpretative base of Layers a and b and a low-velocity zone in the centre, potentially indicating a soil-filled tunnel. (c) West-east section indicating the presence of neck volcanic intrusions of the massive andesite lava. (d) 2D line with 5-m spacing electrodes, providing an overview of the entire longitudinal section of Gunung Padang. (e) Combined profile of NS1, NS2 and NS3 survey lines on the east slope, parallel to the areas behind T-1, T-2 and T-3. (f) Examples of 1-m spacing ERT on the east slope, showcasing detailed subsurface structures. Complete datasets can be found in Figure SF. [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
FIGURE 11 ~The underground chambers revealed by the extremely high-resistive anomaly (EHRA) in the 3D ERT survey. (a,b) 3D ERT imaging before topographic correction. (c) 3D ERT imaging after topographic correction. (d-f) Examples of 2D slices showcasing the EHRA anc the corresponding underground chambers. (g) Index map illustrating the survey line of the 3D ERT survey. [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
FIGURE 11 ~The underground chambers revealed by the extremely high-resistive anomaly (EHRA) in the 3D ERT survey. (a,b) 3D ERT imaging before topographic correction. (c) 3D ERT imaging after topographic correction. (d-f) Examples of 2D slices showcasing the EHRA anc the corresponding underground chambers. (g) Index map illustrating the survey line of the 3D ERT survey. [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
FIGURE 12 — Seismic tomography (ST) prospecting. (a) Index map illustrating the ST survey lines. (b) Line-1: north-south longitudinal section passing through the megalithic site. (c) Line-2: east-west section crossing the centre of the site (crest of T2) and revealing a chamber through its low-seismic velocity anomaly (LVA) within the high-seismic velocity zone. (d) Line-3: east-west ST section crossing T5. The top of the high-velocity layer marks the boundary of the massive basaltic andesite. Numerous vertical structures are detected in the ST sections. [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
FIGURE 12 — Seismic tomography (ST) prospecting. (a) Index map illustrating the ST survey lines. (b) Line-1: north-south longitudinal section passing through the megalithic site. (c) Line-2: east-west section crossing the centre of the site (crest of T2) and revealing a chamber through its low-seismic velocity anomaly (LVA) within the high-seismic velocity zone. (d) Line-3: east-west ST section crossing T5. The top of the high-velocity layer marks the boundary of the massive basaltic andesite. Numerous vertical structures are detected in the ST sections. [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
FIGURE 14 — Simplified reconstruction of Gunung Padang. Unit 1 represents the surficial stone terraces constructed between 2000 and 1100 BCE or more recently. Unit 2 (highlighted in yellow) corresponds to a buried pyramidal-shaped layer composed of columnar rocks and was built around 6000-5500 BCE. Unit 3 (shown in green) dates back to 25 000-14 000 BCE. Unit 4 represents the sculpted massive basaltic- andesite lava. [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
FIGURE 14 — Simplified reconstruction of Gunung Padang. Unit 1 represents the surficial stone terraces constructed between 2000 and 1100 BCE or more recently. Unit 2 (highlighted in yellow) corresponds to a buried pyramidal-shaped layer composed of columnar rocks and was built around 6000-5500 BCE. Unit 3 (shown in green) dates back to 25 000-14 000 BCE. Unit 4 represents the sculpted massive basaltic- andesite lava. [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
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