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A comparable image found in later Hindu iconography is referred to as kritimukha, or Face of Glory (KRAMRISCH 1996:322). The image represents a demon created by Shiva to destroy another demon, which eventually consumed its own body, leaving only the ferocious head behind. Today, this fierce Combined animal and human faces are also found on tiny terracotta pendants that have holes on both edges. This type of object was probably worn as an ornament or possibly used as a finger puppet (KENOYER 1998). An example from Mohenjo-daro has a human bearded face with short bull’s horns. The beard lies flat against the chin and the face has a peaceful countenance (Fig. 5a). A comparable object from Harappa shows a human face with bull’s horns, but the wide mouth is fanged like a tiger and the beard is spread out like the fur around a tiger’s chin (Fig. 5b). These peaceful and ferocious depictions of a horned figure may reflect various aspects of the same deity or regional interpretations of a horned human-tiger being.

Figure 5 A comparable image found in later Hindu iconography is referred to as kritimukha, or Face of Glory (KRAMRISCH 1996:322). The image represents a demon created by Shiva to destroy another demon, which eventually consumed its own body, leaving only the ferocious head behind. Today, this fierce Combined animal and human faces are also found on tiny terracotta pendants that have holes on both edges. This type of object was probably worn as an ornament or possibly used as a finger puppet (KENOYER 1998). An example from Mohenjo-daro has a human bearded face with short bull’s horns. The beard lies flat against the chin and the face has a peaceful countenance (Fig. 5a). A comparable object from Harappa shows a human face with bull’s horns, but the wide mouth is fanged like a tiger and the beard is spread out like the fur around a tiger’s chin (Fig. 5b). These peaceful and ferocious depictions of a horned figure may reflect various aspects of the same deity or regional interpretations of a horned human-tiger being.

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Fig. 1. Map of Indus Tradition sites referred to in text (J. M. Kenoyer).
Fig. 1. Map of Indus Tradition sites referred to in text (J. M. Kenoyer).
Fig. 2. Early Harappan, horned-animal motif: a. buffalo-horned deity painted on Kot Dijian jars from Rehman Dheri, ca. 2800-2600 BC (after SHAH — PARPOLA 1991:color photographs 13, 14; see also DUuRRANI 1988:Fig. 56.); b. buffalo-horned deity painted on Kot Dijian jar, Burzahom; c. buffalo-horned deity, polychrome, painted on a jar from Kot Diji, 2800-2600 BC (after KHAN 1965:PI. 176).
Fig. 2. Early Harappan, horned-animal motif: a. buffalo-horned deity painted on Kot Dijian jars from Rehman Dheri, ca. 2800-2600 BC (after SHAH — PARPOLA 1991:color photographs 13, 14; see also DUuRRANI 1988:Fig. 56.); b. buffalo-horned deity painted on Kot Dijian jar, Burzahom; c. buffalo-horned deity, polychrome, painted on a jar from Kot Diji, 2800-2600 BC (after KHAN 1965:PI. 176).
Fig. 3. Harappan horned-animal motif: a. Padri, vessel with horn motifs and anthropomorphic images with horned headdress (after SHINDE 2004); b. Banawali, small globular vessel with buffalo-head motif in relief (after UMESAO 2000: 145, cat. no. 558).
Fig. 3. Harappan horned-animal motif: a. Padri, vessel with horn motifs and anthropomorphic images with horned headdress (after SHINDE 2004); b. Banawali, small globular vessel with buffalo-head motif in relief (after UMESAO 2000: 145, cat. no. 558).
Fig. 4. Harappan horned figurines (J. M. Kenoyer): a. male figurine with horned headdress, Harappa (H94-2265/3952-01); b. tiger with human face, Harappa (H94-2311/5063-01); c. female head on a catlike body, Harappa (HM 2082).
Fig. 4. Harappan horned figurines (J. M. Kenoyer): a. male figurine with horned headdress, Harappa (H94-2265/3952-01); b. tiger with human face, Harappa (H94-2311/5063-01); c. female head on a catlike body, Harappa (HM 2082).
During the Harappan period the use of carved steatite seals with animal motifs and script became widespread in the cities and towns of the Indus Civilization. Seals were used to impress clay lumps that sealed containers, doors, and storerooms, or possibly to verify documents (FRENEZ — TOSI 2005; KENOYER 2001). At Harappa, seals dating to the earliest part of the Harappa phase, Period 3A (2600-2450 BC), were carved with a single animal motif and Indus script. The earliest examples of molded tablets with narrative scenes are found during Period 3B (2450-2200 BC), and most seals and molded tablets with more elaborate narrative scenes date to Period 3C (2200-1900 BC) (KENOYER 2006; MEADOW — KENOYER 1997).
During the Harappan period the use of carved steatite seals with animal motifs and script became widespread in the cities and towns of the Indus Civilization. Seals were used to impress clay lumps that sealed containers, doors, and storerooms, or possibly to verify documents (FRENEZ — TOSI 2005; KENOYER 2001). At Harappa, seals dating to the earliest part of the Harappa phase, Period 3A (2600-2450 BC), were carved with a single animal motif and Indus script. The earliest examples of molded tablets with narrative scenes are found during Period 3B (2450-2200 BC), and most seals and molded tablets with more elaborate narrative scenes date to Period 3C (2200-1900 BC) (KENOYER 2006; MEADOW — KENOYER 1997).
stool (Fig. 7). The standing figure is probably a d eity while the kneeling figure could be a shaman or devotee. In other narratives the image is depicted seated in the yogic position, usually on a wide throne or bed (Fig. 8a). Some seated figures with horned headdresses appear to have additional faces carved on the side of the head, suggesting that this deity had at least three aspects (Figs Sa, b and c). Only one terracotta figurine from Mohenjo-daro has a d ouble face, on front and back of the head (MACKAY 1938:Pl. LXXVI, 8), but no figurine with three or four faces has been found. Fig. 8. Horned deity seals, Mohenjo-daro: a. horned deity with pipal-leaf headdress, Mohenjo-daro (DK12050, NMP 50.296) (Courtesy of the Department of Archaeology and Museums, Government of Pakistan); b. horned deity with star motifs, Mohenjo-daro (M-305) (PARPOLA 1994:Fig. 10.9); reproduced with permission of the author and courtesy of the Archaeological Survey of India; c. horned deity surrounded by animals, Mohenjo-daro (JOSHI — PARPOLA 1987:M-304); reproduced with permission of the authors and courtesy of the Archaeological Survey of India.
stool (Fig. 7). The standing figure is probably a d eity while the kneeling figure could be a shaman or devotee. In other narratives the image is depicted seated in the yogic position, usually on a wide throne or bed (Fig. 8a). Some seated figures with horned headdresses appear to have additional faces carved on the side of the head, suggesting that this deity had at least three aspects (Figs Sa, b and c). Only one terracotta figurine from Mohenjo-daro has a d ouble face, on front and back of the head (MACKAY 1938:Pl. LXXVI, 8), but no figurine with three or four faces has been found. Fig. 8. Horned deity seals, Mohenjo-daro: a. horned deity with pipal-leaf headdress, Mohenjo-daro (DK12050, NMP 50.296) (Courtesy of the Department of Archaeology and Museums, Government of Pakistan); b. horned deity with star motifs, Mohenjo-daro (M-305) (PARPOLA 1994:Fig. 10.9); reproduced with permission of the author and courtesy of the Archaeological Survey of India; c. horned deity surrounded by animals, Mohenjo-daro (JOSHI — PARPOLA 1987:M-304); reproduced with permission of the authors and courtesy of the Archaeological Survey of India.
lower face could indicate a beard or simply accentuated lips and nose (Fig. 9a) (MACKAY 1938:PI. CXIII,14; MARSHALL 1931:Pl. CXVH,16). While most horned figures are bearded and presumably male, others are beardless and have a prominent breast representing a female deity. One unique seal from Mohenjo-daro shows a bull-horned female deity with clawlike hands attacking a horned tiger (Fig. 9b) (MARSHALL 1931:PI. CXI, 357). This being has the hindquarters and tail of a bull, but the torso is human female, with a breast in profile. The deity’s female form indicates that the horned beings had both male and female aspects. Se spears at each other and holding onto a figure that is standing between them (Fig. 9c) (JOSHI— PARPOLA 1987:K-65). The middle figure is smaller and probably represents a female with long hair, bangles on each arm, and dressed in a long skirt. Looking over the scene is perhaps a female deity with the body of a tiger and the horns of a Markhor. The deity has long streaming hair, and both arms are covered with numerous bangles. In front of the deity is a tree without leaves; behind is a tree covered with leaves. A single sign of three strokes appears in front of the deity’s face. The motif of the female human-tiger- Markhor deity is also depicted on a square seal from Kalibangan (JOSHI — PARPOLA 1987:K-50) and on a seal from the site of Nausharo (JARRIGE 1989:PI. XIV, 9), but no example has been discovered at the larger urban centers.
lower face could indicate a beard or simply accentuated lips and nose (Fig. 9a) (MACKAY 1938:PI. CXIII,14; MARSHALL 1931:Pl. CXVH,16). While most horned figures are bearded and presumably male, others are beardless and have a prominent breast representing a female deity. One unique seal from Mohenjo-daro shows a bull-horned female deity with clawlike hands attacking a horned tiger (Fig. 9b) (MARSHALL 1931:PI. CXI, 357). This being has the hindquarters and tail of a bull, but the torso is human female, with a breast in profile. The deity’s female form indicates that the horned beings had both male and female aspects. Se spears at each other and holding onto a figure that is standing between them (Fig. 9c) (JOSHI— PARPOLA 1987:K-65). The middle figure is smaller and probably represents a female with long hair, bangles on each arm, and dressed in a long skirt. Looking over the scene is perhaps a female deity with the body of a tiger and the horns of a Markhor. The deity has long streaming hair, and both arms are covered with numerous bangles. In front of the deity is a tree without leaves; behind is a tree covered with leaves. A single sign of three strokes appears in front of the deity’s face. The motif of the female human-tiger- Markhor deity is also depicted on a square seal from Kalibangan (JOSHI — PARPOLA 1987:K-50) and on a seal from the site of Nausharo (JARRIGE 1989:PI. XIV, 9), but no example has been discovered at the larger urban centers.
but a single groove in the groin area has been interpreted as either a vagina or a stylized phallus. The most famous representation of the horned-deity motif is on a seal from Mohenjo-daro that shows a male deity with three faces seated on a throne in the yogic position with what appears to be an erec' phallus (Fig. 8c) (KENOYER 1998). This image is heavily adorned with a series of graduated necklaces reaching to his waist and bangles on both arms. The massive headdress is made up of water buffalc hors with deep ridges and a central fan-shaped element that could represent feathers or branches. A rhinoceros, a water buffalo, an elephant, and a tiger, all ferocious animals, surround the figure. The hrone has legs in the shape of flaring columns, and two gentle antelope are seen at the front of the dais. A single line of undeciphered Indus script (in reverse) is carved along the top of the seal. The hornec figure is clearly the focus of the image, but there are many ways to interpret the iconography (DURING-
but a single groove in the groin area has been interpreted as either a vagina or a stylized phallus. The most famous representation of the horned-deity motif is on a seal from Mohenjo-daro that shows a male deity with three faces seated on a throne in the yogic position with what appears to be an erec' phallus (Fig. 8c) (KENOYER 1998). This image is heavily adorned with a series of graduated necklaces reaching to his waist and bangles on both arms. The massive headdress is made up of water buffalc hors with deep ridges and a central fan-shaped element that could represent feathers or branches. A rhinoceros, a water buffalo, an elephant, and a tiger, all ferocious animals, surround the figure. The hrone has legs in the shape of flaring columns, and two gentle antelope are seen at the front of the dais. A single line of undeciphered Indus script (in reverse) is carved along the top of the seal. The hornec figure is clearly the focus of the image, but there are many ways to interpret the iconography (DURING-
Fig. 11. Horned deity and “temple,” Harappa (H95-2487/4466-01) (Courtesy of the Department of Archaeology and Museums, Government of Pakistan). molded terracotta tablets throughout the Indus CASPERS 1985; PARPOLA 1994; SRINIVASAN 1984). The yogic posture and erect phallus have tantric overtones, representing the use of meditation and sexual powers to control or maintain balance in nature. Because of these features, many scholars have compared the image on this seal to the later Hindu deity Shiva who is often called Pasu pati nath, or Lord of the Beasts. However, such a connection cannot be reliably tested without the decipherment of the text, and there is no way to link the horned figure on any Indus seal with later iconographic images. Even though the images may look similar, the meaning relayed may have been significantly different.
Fig. 11. Horned deity and “temple,” Harappa (H95-2487/4466-01) (Courtesy of the Department of Archaeology and Museums, Government of Pakistan). molded terracotta tablets throughout the Indus CASPERS 1985; PARPOLA 1994; SRINIVASAN 1984). The yogic posture and erect phallus have tantric overtones, representing the use of meditation and sexual powers to control or maintain balance in nature. Because of these features, many scholars have compared the image on this seal to the later Hindu deity Shiva who is often called Pasu pati nath, or Lord of the Beasts. However, such a connection cannot be reliably tested without the decipherment of the text, and there is no way to link the horned figure on any Indus seal with later iconographic images. Even though the images may look similar, the meaning relayed may have been significantly different.
Fig. 12. Buffalo attack scenes: a. bull attack scene, circular button seal, Mehrgarh (after SHAH — PARPOLA 1991:MR-17); b. buffalo attack scene, Mohenjo-daro (after JOSHI — PARPOLA 1987:M-312); c. buffalo attack or bull-leaping scene, Banawali (after UMESAO 2000:88, cat. no. 335). There is a separate theme in Indus art depicting conflict between humans and horned animals. The animals are usually the water buffalo, humped zebu, and short-horned bull without a prominent hump. These conflict scenes are depicted on carved terracotta or stone seals dating from the Early Harappan and Harappan periods. Hunting wild cattle or water buffalo must have been dangerous, and it is likely that the scenes on the seals represent either actual or mythological hunting scenes. What is interesting is that the humans seem to be destroyed by the horned animal in the early versions of this motif, while in later motifs the tables are turned and the animal is being destroyed by humans (Fig. /5c) or used for acrobatic leaping rituals (Fig. /2c).
Fig. 12. Buffalo attack scenes: a. bull attack scene, circular button seal, Mehrgarh (after SHAH — PARPOLA 1991:MR-17); b. buffalo attack scene, Mohenjo-daro (after JOSHI — PARPOLA 1987:M-312); c. buffalo attack or bull-leaping scene, Banawali (after UMESAO 2000:88, cat. no. 335). There is a separate theme in Indus art depicting conflict between humans and horned animals. The animals are usually the water buffalo, humped zebu, and short-horned bull without a prominent hump. These conflict scenes are depicted on carved terracotta or stone seals dating from the Early Harappan and Harappan periods. Hunting wild cattle or water buffalo must have been dangerous, and it is likely that the scenes on the seals represent either actual or mythological hunting scenes. What is interesting is that the humans seem to be destroyed by the horned animal in the early versions of this motif, while in later motifs the tables are turned and the animal is being destroyed by humans (Fig. /5c) or used for acrobatic leaping rituals (Fig. /2c).
Fig. 13. Molded tablet with four narrative scenes, Harappa (H97-3349/8 102-41) (J. M. Kenoyer): a. bull and man fight scene; b. deity seated on bed with person seated on stool; c. horned deity standing with arms at side, (1) H97-3349, (2) H97-3301; d. Indus script.
Fig. 13. Molded tablet with four narrative scenes, Harappa (H97-3349/8 102-41) (J. M. Kenoyer): a. bull and man fight scene; b. deity seated on bed with person seated on stool; c. horned deity standing with arms at side, (1) H97-3349, (2) H97-3301; d. Indus script.
alaeolithic and may have been widespread throughout West and South Asia. Each region probably usec amiliar animals to represent specific concepts of nature and conflict between various spiritual forces. The Indus seals usually depict a powerful nude male figure, sometimes explicitly male, grasping twc igers by the throats with bare hands. On one Indus seal, where the figure is carved in greater detail, it is ossible to make out six locks of hair (Fig. /5a). It is unknown what these locks represent, but Parpolé laims the Indus iconography is identical to the six locks of hair depicted on some Mesopotamian herc igures in similar contest scenes (PARPOLA 1994:247). It is possible that such iconographic details were« hared between the two regions since this Indus seal may date to the final Harappa phase (ca. 2200- 900 BC), by which time we know there was considerable commerce between Mesopotamia and the ndus. However, it seems unlikely that the Indus artist would have borrowed the six locks of hair moti! nd not the symbol of lions and short-horned Mesopotamian bulls that are also associated with the Aesopotamian hero. In terms of one region influencing the other, we know that the zebu and wate uffalo images from the Indus region do spread to Mesopotamia during the Akkadian period (PARPOLA 994), but so far there is no evidence of Mesopotamian lion motifs or short-horned bull motifs being ised in Indus iconography. Thea Tadive epnantact matt ic alan caan an mrnldad tahlate urhars tha ovo cthranachnag the tus Hoare x1714b
alaeolithic and may have been widespread throughout West and South Asia. Each region probably usec amiliar animals to represent specific concepts of nature and conflict between various spiritual forces. The Indus seals usually depict a powerful nude male figure, sometimes explicitly male, grasping twc igers by the throats with bare hands. On one Indus seal, where the figure is carved in greater detail, it is ossible to make out six locks of hair (Fig. /5a). It is unknown what these locks represent, but Parpolé laims the Indus iconography is identical to the six locks of hair depicted on some Mesopotamian herc igures in similar contest scenes (PARPOLA 1994:247). It is possible that such iconographic details were« hared between the two regions since this Indus seal may date to the final Harappa phase (ca. 2200- 900 BC), by which time we know there was considerable commerce between Mesopotamia and the ndus. However, it seems unlikely that the Indus artist would have borrowed the six locks of hair moti! nd not the symbol of lions and short-horned Mesopotamian bulls that are also associated with the Aesopotamian hero. In terms of one region influencing the other, we know that the zebu and wate uffalo images from the Indus region do spread to Mesopotamia during the Akkadian period (PARPOLA 994), but so far there is no evidence of Mesopotamian lion motifs or short-horned bull motifs being ised in Indus iconography. Thea Tadive epnantact matt ic alan caan an mrnldad tahlate urhars tha ovo cthranachnag the tus Hoare x1714b
Fig. 15. Tiger contest scenes: a. hero and tigers contest scene, Mohenjo-daro (M308) (after JOSHI — PARPOLA 1987); b. hero or heroine and tigers contest scene, Harappa, obverse (H95-246/465 1-10) (J. M. Kenoyer); c. narrative tablet with deity and water buffalo sacrifice, Harappa, reverse (H95-2486/465 1-10) (J. M. Kenoyer); d. narrative tablet with man in tree and tiger, Harappa, obverse (H2001-5075/922-01) (J. M. Kenoyer).
Fig. 15. Tiger contest scenes: a. hero and tigers contest scene, Mohenjo-daro (M308) (after JOSHI — PARPOLA 1987); b. hero or heroine and tigers contest scene, Harappa, obverse (H95-246/465 1-10) (J. M. Kenoyer); c. narrative tablet with deity and water buffalo sacrifice, Harappa, reverse (H95-2486/465 1-10) (J. M. Kenoyer); d. narrative tablet with man in tree and tiger, Harappa, obverse (H2001-5075/922-01) (J. M. Kenoyer).
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