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Inferential statistics for all transfer tasks and constructs. All interactions between Condition (DS, WM, AE) and Session (pre-test, post-test) are based on mixed factorial ANOVAs with re- peated measures on the latter variable. Simple effects are computed from follow-up dependent t-tests (two-tailed). Cohen's d values represent effect sizes for the mean difference between pre-test and post-test.

Table 1 Inferential statistics for all transfer tasks and constructs. All interactions between Condition (DS, WM, AE) and Session (pre-test, post-test) are based on mixed factorial ANOVAs with re- peated measures on the latter variable. Simple effects are computed from follow-up dependent t-tests (two-tailed). Cohen's d values represent effect sizes for the mean difference between pre-test and post-test.

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Fig. 1. Example-situations from the designed sport training condition. A: Perceptive problems. Participants react to proprioceptive cues (partner's changes in position) to determine the course of actions to undertake. In both examples, a change in top position provides an opportunity for the bottom partner to transition to a top position. B: Motor problems. Situations trigger unusual motor coordination, with transitions from different positional levels (i.e. lying-quadrupedal-standing, Example 1) or combinations of body translations and rotations (Example 2). C: Cognitive problems. Participants execute a series of movements. A number prompts recall and execution of the corresponding movement in the series. Level of difficulty can be increased with lateral inversions. In both examples shown in the figure, the second of a series of three movements was to be recalled, either without (Example 1) or with additional lateral inversion (Example 2).
Fig. 1. Example-situations from the designed sport training condition. A: Perceptive problems. Participants react to proprioceptive cues (partner's changes in position) to determine the course of actions to undertake. In both examples, a change in top position provides an opportunity for the bottom partner to transition to a top position. B: Motor problems. Situations trigger unusual motor coordination, with transitions from different positional levels (i.e. lying-quadrupedal-standing, Example 1) or combinations of body translations and rotations (Example 2). C: Cognitive problems. Participants execute a series of movements. A number prompts recall and execution of the corresponding movement in the series. Level of difficulty can be increased with lateral inversions. In both examples shown in the figure, the second of a series of three movements was to be recalled, either without (Example 1) or with additional lateral inversion (Example 2).
Fig. 2. Physiological measures for all training groups across weekly testing sessions. A: Resting heart rate expressed in beats per minute. B: Oxygen saturation, in percentage of blooc oxygen. C and D: Systolic and diastolic blood pressure, respectively, in millimeters of mercury. Error bars represent standard errors of the means corrected for repeated measurements.
Fig. 2. Physiological measures for all training groups across weekly testing sessions. A: Resting heart rate expressed in beats per minute. B: Oxygen saturation, in percentage of blooc oxygen. C and D: Systolic and diastolic blood pressure, respectively, in millimeters of mercury. Error bars represent standard errors of the means corrected for repeated measurements.
Fig. 3. Working memory capacity increase across 24 training sessions for spatial and verbal complex span tasks. Training data were compiled automatically at the end of each traini session. Error bars represent standard errors of the means. Participants in the WM group showed a steady rate of improvement in spatial and verbal span across the eight weeks of training as demon- strated by a linear trend analysis and session-to-session mean compar- isons (Fig. 3). Dependent t-tests on the first and last sessions confirmed the gains [t(22) = 4.48, p <.001, d = .93; and t(22) = 6.07, p< .001, d= 1.27 respectively for spatial and verbal]. Spatial and verbal increases were initially unequal, with spatial capacity significantly superior to verbal capacity from session one through session six, as demonstrated by dependent t-tests with a significance level of .05 (two-tailed). In subsequent sessions, spatial and verbal capacities did not differ significantly. Besides in-training measurements performed at multiple time- points throughout the program, we also assessed cognitive ability before and after training. Specifically, our design included four tasks measuring spatial ability and three tasks measuring working memory capacity. Separate 3 (Condition) x 2 (Session) mixed factorial ANOVAs with repeated measures on the latter variable were conducted for each tasks, to probe transfer effects for each training group. For all results reported here, there was no significant difference between groups at pre-test. Inferential statistics and corresponding effect sizes are presented in Table 1. Means and standard errors for each group and task are presented in Fig. 4.
Fig. 3. Working memory capacity increase across 24 training sessions for spatial and verbal complex span tasks. Training data were compiled automatically at the end of each traini session. Error bars represent standard errors of the means. Participants in the WM group showed a steady rate of improvement in spatial and verbal span across the eight weeks of training as demon- strated by a linear trend analysis and session-to-session mean compar- isons (Fig. 3). Dependent t-tests on the first and last sessions confirmed the gains [t(22) = 4.48, p <.001, d = .93; and t(22) = 6.07, p< .001, d= 1.27 respectively for spatial and verbal]. Spatial and verbal increases were initially unequal, with spatial capacity significantly superior to verbal capacity from session one through session six, as demonstrated by dependent t-tests with a significance level of .05 (two-tailed). In subsequent sessions, spatial and verbal capacities did not differ significantly. Besides in-training measurements performed at multiple time- points throughout the program, we also assessed cognitive ability before and after training. Specifically, our design included four tasks measuring spatial ability and three tasks measuring working memory capacity. Separate 3 (Condition) x 2 (Session) mixed factorial ANOVAs with repeated measures on the latter variable were conducted for each tasks, to probe transfer effects for each training group. For all results reported here, there was no significant difference between groups at pre-test. Inferential statistics and corresponding effect sizes are presented in Table 1. Means and standard errors for each group and task are presented in Fig. 4.
We report here our findings for all working memory capacity tasks (immediate free recall, backward digit span, letter-number sequenc- ing). Interactions between Condition (DS, WM, AE) and Session (pre, Table 2 presents the correlation matrix and descriptive statistics for each task. The table shows strong correlations between all spatial ability tasks and between all working memory capacity tasks. This suggests two different constructs in our data, which was confirmed by an explor- atory factor analysis using principal component extraction and promax rotation. Inspection of the scree plot and eigenvalues suggested a two- component solution, which we refer to as spatial ability and working memory capacity (factor loadings are presented in Table 3). The corre- lation between the two constructs was r = .20. Fig. 4. Spatial ability tasks. Mean performance for all spatial ability tasks (mental rotation, paper folding, form board, surface development) and working memory capacity tasks (immediate free recall, backward digit span, letter-number sequencing) as a function of testing session, for each condition. Error bars represent standard errors of the means. All groups were statistically equivalent at baseline.
We report here our findings for all working memory capacity tasks (immediate free recall, backward digit span, letter-number sequenc- ing). Interactions between Condition (DS, WM, AE) and Session (pre, Table 2 presents the correlation matrix and descriptive statistics for each task. The table shows strong correlations between all spatial ability tasks and between all working memory capacity tasks. This suggests two different constructs in our data, which was confirmed by an explor- atory factor analysis using principal component extraction and promax rotation. Inspection of the scree plot and eigenvalues suggested a two- component solution, which we refer to as spatial ability and working memory capacity (factor loadings are presented in Table 3). The corre- lation between the two constructs was r = .20. Fig. 4. Spatial ability tasks. Mean performance for all spatial ability tasks (mental rotation, paper folding, form board, surface development) and working memory capacity tasks (immediate free recall, backward digit span, letter-number sequencing) as a function of testing session, for each condition. Error bars represent standard errors of the means. All groups were statistically equivalent at baseline.
Cognitive measurements before training. F1 (spatial ability) and F2 (working memory capacity) refer to the factor loadings of each measure from an exploratory factor analysis with promax rotation (N = 67). Note: Only factor loadings greater than .30 are included in the table.
Cognitive measurements before training. F1 (spatial ability) and F2 (working memory capacity) refer to the factor loadings of each measure from an exploratory factor analysis with promax rotation (N = 67). Note: Only factor loadings greater than .30 are included in the table.
Correlation matrix and descriptive statistics for all spatial ability (mental rotation, paper folding, form board, surface development) and working memory capacity tasks (immediate free recall, backward digit span, letter-number sequencing) at pre-test (N = 67).
Correlation matrix and descriptive statistics for all spatial ability (mental rotation, paper folding, form board, surface development) and working memory capacity tasks (immediate free recall, backward digit span, letter-number sequencing) at pre-test (N = 67).
"ig. 5. Spatial ability and working memory capacity constructs. Mean performance for all transfer tasks aggregated as spatial ability and working memory capacity constructs, for eac raining condition. Error bars represent standard errors of the means. All groups were statistically equivalent at baseline.
"ig. 5. Spatial ability and working memory capacity constructs. Mean performance for all transfer tasks aggregated as spatial ability and working memory capacity constructs, for eac raining condition. Error bars represent standard errors of the means. All groups were statistically equivalent at baseline.
Acknowledgments motor skill acquisition can induce remarkable changes in a pleasant and healthy manner accessible to all.
Acknowledgments motor skill acquisition can induce remarkable changes in a pleasant and healthy manner accessible to all.
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