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Figure 6. DTC controller (a) DTC Architecture for 1-@ Machine (b) DTC flowchart The stator flow is altered via an adjustable two-level hysteresis comparator. According to [21], the switching table is generated using the results of these comparators and the flow vector's information. The following formulas [21] are utilized to calculate the electromagnetic torque Tem and the stator flux 0, in the DTC:

Figure 6 DTC controller (a) DTC Architecture for 1-@ Machine (b) DTC flowchart The stator flow is altered via an adjustable two-level hysteresis comparator. According to [21], the switching table is generated using the results of these comparators and the flow vector's information. The following formulas [21] are utilized to calculate the electromagnetic torque Tem and the stator flux 0, in the DTC:

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The features of the photovoltaic (PV) cell may described using the electrical equivalent circuit, as depicted in figure 2. Silicon is a predominant semiconductor material utilized in the construction of solar panels because of its exceptional conductivity control capabilities [15].
The features of the photovoltaic (PV) cell may described using the electrical equivalent circuit, as depicted in figure 2. Silicon is a predominant semiconductor material utilized in the construction of solar panels because of its exceptional conductivity control capabilities [15].
Table 1. Specifications of the PV array 3.1 Perturb & Observe (P&O) Methodology of PV System.
Table 1. Specifications of the PV array 3.1 Perturb & Observe (P&O) Methodology of PV System.
able 2. 1- @ Induction Motor Parameter 4.1 The 1-6 Induction Motor with FOC Technique
able 2. 1- @ Induction Motor Parameter 4.1 The 1-6 Induction Motor with FOC Technique
The purpose of MPP tracker use in the PV array is to constantly monitor and adjust the maximum power point (MPP) in response to changes in irradiance and temperature [19]. Figure 3. P& O method flow chart
The purpose of MPP tracker use in the PV array is to constantly monitor and adjust the maximum power point (MPP) in response to changes in irradiance and temperature [19]. Figure 3. P& O method flow chart
Figure 4. Equivalent Circuit of a Stationary Reference Frame Unsymmetrical 1-@ Induction Motor
Figure 4. Equivalent Circuit of a Stationary Reference Frame Unsymmetrical 1-@ Induction Motor
In FOC, the following dynamic equations apply to the 1- induction motor when it is under PI vector control [1]: where @,. That would be the direct-axis rotor flux linkage. w, is the synchronous angular velocity, Ts’ = Ls / Rseqg, G =1— M? /L.Lp, Rseq = M? /L,” and t, =L, /R, where, t, The time constant of the rotor. 1-@ induction motor, a breaking chopper, an inverter, and a rectifier made up of a single induction motor drive. The FOC controller generates the gating pulses for the inverter, schematically depicted in figure 5(a). Figure 5(b) depicts a flowchart for FOC algorithm.
In FOC, the following dynamic equations apply to the 1- induction motor when it is under PI vector control [1]: where @,. That would be the direct-axis rotor flux linkage. w, is the synchronous angular velocity, Ts’ = Ls / Rseqg, G =1— M? /L.Lp, Rseq = M? /L,” and t, =L, /R, where, t, The time constant of the rotor. 1-@ induction motor, a breaking chopper, an inverter, and a rectifier made up of a single induction motor drive. The FOC controller generates the gating pulses for the inverter, schematically depicted in figure 5(a). Figure 5(b) depicts a flowchart for FOC algorithm.
DTC technology guarantees high economy and precise and quick torque dynamics. The direct application of a control sequence to upstream voltage inverter switches (switching states) is the main goal of the DTC concept [29]. A switching table, two hysteresis regulators, and the machine's electromagnetic torque and flux decoupling are progressively controlled and regulated[3]. Figure 6(a) depicts a simple DTC control structure [30], and figure 6(b) depicts a flowchart for DTC algorithm. A three-level hysteresis comparator is used to control electromagnetic torque.
DTC technology guarantees high economy and precise and quick torque dynamics. The direct application of a control sequence to upstream voltage inverter switches (switching states) is the main goal of the DTC concept [29]. A switching table, two hysteresis regulators, and the machine's electromagnetic torque and flux decoupling are progressively controlled and regulated[3]. Figure 6(a) depicts a simple DTC control structure [30], and figure 6(b) depicts a flowchart for DTC algorithm. A three-level hysteresis comparator is used to control electromagnetic torque.
Figure 5. FOC controller (a) Architecture for 1-@ Induction Motor (b) FOC flowchart Research Article | Volume 12, Issue 3 | Pages 827-835 | e-ISSN: 2347-470X PEETUUTTIGUIVIIGs JUVUULLTICI Ui Electrical and Electronics Research (IJEER) 4.2 The 1-@ Induction Motor with DTC Technique
Figure 5. FOC controller (a) Architecture for 1-@ Induction Motor (b) FOC flowchart Research Article | Volume 12, Issue 3 | Pages 827-835 | e-ISSN: 2347-470X PEETUUTTIGUIVIIGs JUVUULLTICI Ui Electrical and Electronics Research (IJEER) 4.2 The 1-@ Induction Motor with DTC Technique
(d) Array @ 1000 W/m2 & specified temperature for DTC Figure 7. V-I characteristics of Trina solar TSM-250PA05.08 array type The V-I & V-P characteristics of Trina solar TSM-250PA05.08 array type is demonstrated in figures 7 and 8 for three levels. The V-I characteristics at the utilization of the FOC controller for the array at 25° with speci fied irradiation is illustrated in figure 7(a), while that for 1000 W/m? and specified temperature is illustrated in figure 7(c). The V-I characteristics at the utilization of the DTC contro ler for the array at 25° with specified irradiation are illustrated in figure 7(b). In contrast, those for 1000 W/m2 and specified temperature are illustrated in figure 7(d). By comparing t he results obtained for the V-I characteristics for both FOC & DTC, the results show agreement between the two curves for the generated current (In each cases current is 8.55 ampere).
(d) Array @ 1000 W/m2 & specified temperature for DTC Figure 7. V-I characteristics of Trina solar TSM-250PA05.08 array type The V-I & V-P characteristics of Trina solar TSM-250PA05.08 array type is demonstrated in figures 7 and 8 for three levels. The V-I characteristics at the utilization of the FOC controller for the array at 25° with speci fied irradiation is illustrated in figure 7(a), while that for 1000 W/m? and specified temperature is illustrated in figure 7(c). The V-I characteristics at the utilization of the DTC contro ler for the array at 25° with specified irradiation are illustrated in figure 7(b). In contrast, those for 1000 W/m2 and specified temperature are illustrated in figure 7(d). By comparing t he results obtained for the V-I characteristics for both FOC & DTC, the results show agreement between the two curves for the generated current (In each cases current is 8.55 ampere).
Table 3. Settling time and Rise time results for FOC and DTC Regarding response time, the FOC main current was more responsive than the DTC main current; nevertheless, the DTC auxiliary current and DC voltages in the solar cells were superior to the FOC ones. The results of studies using the approach on the same system under identical climatic circumstances affecting solar cells support the claim that the DTC method is superior to the FOC. Figures 10 (a) and 10(b) show the induction motor's rotor speed, correctly matching its FOC and DTC reference values. Both FOC and DTC exhibit steady-state speed characteristics between 1.5 and 2 seconds. This indicates that the systems reach and maintain a stable speed within this time frame.
Table 3. Settling time and Rise time results for FOC and DTC Regarding response time, the FOC main current was more responsive than the DTC main current; nevertheless, the DTC auxiliary current and DC voltages in the solar cells were superior to the FOC ones. The results of studies using the approach on the same system under identical climatic circumstances affecting solar cells support the claim that the DTC method is superior to the FOC. Figures 10 (a) and 10(b) show the induction motor's rotor speed, correctly matching its FOC and DTC reference values. Both FOC and DTC exhibit steady-state speed characteristics between 1.5 and 2 seconds. This indicates that the systems reach and maintain a stable speed within this time frame.
The P-V characteristics at the utilization of the FOC controller for the array at 25° with specified irradiation is illustrated in figure 8(a), while that for 1000 W/m? and specified temperature is illustrated in figure 8(c). The P-V characteristics at the utilization of the DTC controller for the array at 25° with specified irradiation are illustrated in figure 8(b). In contrast, those for 1000 W/m2 and specified temperature are illustrated in figure S(d). By comparing the results obtained for the P-V characteristics for both FOC & DTC, the results show agreement between the two curves for the generated power (maximum power generated for the array is 1998.88 watts at 284 volts in each case).
The P-V characteristics at the utilization of the FOC controller for the array at 25° with specified irradiation is illustrated in figure 8(a), while that for 1000 W/m? and specified temperature is illustrated in figure 8(c). The P-V characteristics at the utilization of the DTC controller for the array at 25° with specified irradiation are illustrated in figure 8(b). In contrast, those for 1000 W/m2 and specified temperature are illustrated in figure S(d). By comparing the results obtained for the P-V characteristics for both FOC & DTC, the results show agreement between the two curves for the generated power (maximum power generated for the array is 1998.88 watts at 284 volts in each case).
be riiaionts Figure 9. DC voltage waveform at utilizing: (a) FOC controller (b) DTC controller
be riiaionts Figure 9. DC voltage waveform at utilizing: (a) FOC controller (b) DTC controller
The main winding currents /a and auxiliary winding currents [b impacted by both approaches are depicted in figures I](a) & 11(b). The currents still exhibit variations during the steady- state period (1.5-2 seconds). This suggests that while the speed is stable, the current dynamics are adjusting to maintain this steady speed. These adjustments are due to the control strategies responding to load changes or other disturbances.
The main winding currents /a and auxiliary winding currents [b impacted by both approaches are depicted in figures I](a) & 11(b). The currents still exhibit variations during the steady- state period (1.5-2 seconds). This suggests that while the speed is stable, the current dynamics are adjusting to maintain this steady speed. These adjustments are due to the control strategies responding to load changes or other disturbances.
Figure 12. Electromagnetic Torque Te: (a) FOC (b)DTC Figures 12(a) and 12(b) demonstrate the Te for both FOC and DTC with a long settling time of two seconds. The torque shows changes even during the steady-state speed period. This variation in torque is necessary to compensate for any disturbances or to maintain the desired speed, reflecting the active role of the control strategies in managing the torque to achieve stable operation. FOC uses negative torque to decelerate and stabilize the motor, ensuring smooth and controlled operation. DTC frequently generates negative torque due to rapid switching of voltage vectors, managing dynamic changes effectively but with more torque ripple compared to FOC.
Figure 12. Electromagnetic Torque Te: (a) FOC (b)DTC Figures 12(a) and 12(b) demonstrate the Te for both FOC and DTC with a long settling time of two seconds. The torque shows changes even during the steady-state speed period. This variation in torque is necessary to compensate for any disturbances or to maintain the desired speed, reflecting the active role of the control strategies in managing the torque to achieve stable operation. FOC uses negative torque to decelerate and stabilize the motor, ensuring smooth and controlled operation. DTC frequently generates negative torque due to rapid switching of voltage vectors, managing dynamic changes effectively but with more torque ripple compared to FOC.
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Induction MotorField oriented control
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