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Note: Bolded items indicate retrograde propulsion amendments; values rounded up to nearest half-percent (n=53)

Table 1 Note: Bolded items indicate retrograde propulsion amendments; values rounded up to nearest half-percent (n=53)

Related Figures (11)

FIGURE 1. Remains of the Santiago in the Garden Island Ships’ Graveyard, Port Adelaide, South Australia. (Photo by N. Richards.)
FIGURE 1. Remains of the Santiago in the Garden Island Ships’ Graveyard, Port Adelaide, South Australia. (Photo by N. Richards.)
FIGURE 2. Watercraft abandoned in Australia 1800-2000 by number of watercraft (n=1,246 watercraft). (Drawing by N. Richards.)
FIGURE 2. Watercraft abandoned in Australia 1800-2000 by number of watercraft (n=1,246 watercraft). (Drawing by N. Richards.)
FIGURE 3. Map showing the distribution of abandoned watercraft in association with the Australian coastline and river systems. Circles denote locations of official Com- monwealth dumping areas defined under the Beaches, Fishing Ground and Sea Routes Protection Act, 1932 (Commonwealth Government 1932). Spatial data is from a variety of sources; GPS locations from archaeological inspection, official nomenclature lists of places names, and scuttling locations known by government authorities (see also Richards 2002). (Drawing by N. Richards.) conditions, ranging from deep water to intertidal sites, were a part of the survey. Researchers inspected sites by either diving on the archaeo- logical remnants of watercraft or by accessing them at convenient tides if in an intertidal set- ting. In the case of beached vessels, inspec- tion and survey occurred with a combination of wading, snorkeling, and diving. At all sites, written observations and photographs or site measurement and detailed site description
FIGURE 3. Map showing the distribution of abandoned watercraft in association with the Australian coastline and river systems. Circles denote locations of official Com- monwealth dumping areas defined under the Beaches, Fishing Ground and Sea Routes Protection Act, 1932 (Commonwealth Government 1932). Spatial data is from a variety of sources; GPS locations from archaeological inspection, official nomenclature lists of places names, and scuttling locations known by government authorities (see also Richards 2002). (Drawing by N. Richards.) conditions, ranging from deep water to intertidal sites, were a part of the survey. Researchers inspected sites by either diving on the archaeo- logical remnants of watercraft or by accessing them at convenient tides if in an intertidal set- ting. In the case of beached vessels, inspec- tion and survey occurred with a combination of wading, snorkeling, and diving. At all sites, written observations and photographs or site measurement and detailed site description
FIGURE 4. An example of the functional post-abandonment utilization of unwanted watercraft, the Tangalooma Ships’ Graveyard and breakwater, Moreton Island, Queensland. (Photo by N. Richards.) These alterations also have consequences on the duration of use of a vessel. In relation to the use life of abandoned watercraft, the data suggest that modified vessels lasted 9 to 10 years longer than unmodified craft. This sub- stantial cost saving for ship owners is further compounded if many vessels were “hulked” or converted following the completion of their mer- cantile career for reutilization in support func- tions (for example as a repository for goods and cargo or as a hull that would be towed). The conversion of a vessel to a support role occurred for a range of economic reasons. Nor- mally a vessel had become unwanted because of its condition and age (tied to an inability to gain marine insurance) or its representa- tion of an old technology that was no longer economical to run. In other cases, it may be because a particular trade disappeared or ceased to be viable. For a ship owner to transform the vessel into a hulk, there needed to be a demand for the fulfillment of such a role, and In other cases vessels were used for special support roles and may have had new and non- traditional functions assigned to them. A short list of examples includes residences, bathhouses, traditional functions assigned to them. A short
FIGURE 4. An example of the functional post-abandonment utilization of unwanted watercraft, the Tangalooma Ships’ Graveyard and breakwater, Moreton Island, Queensland. (Photo by N. Richards.) These alterations also have consequences on the duration of use of a vessel. In relation to the use life of abandoned watercraft, the data suggest that modified vessels lasted 9 to 10 years longer than unmodified craft. This sub- stantial cost saving for ship owners is further compounded if many vessels were “hulked” or converted following the completion of their mer- cantile career for reutilization in support func- tions (for example as a repository for goods and cargo or as a hull that would be towed). The conversion of a vessel to a support role occurred for a range of economic reasons. Nor- mally a vessel had become unwanted because of its condition and age (tied to an inability to gain marine insurance) or its representa- tion of an old technology that was no longer economical to run. In other cases, it may be because a particular trade disappeared or ceased to be viable. For a ship owner to transform the vessel into a hulk, there needed to be a demand for the fulfillment of such a role, and In other cases vessels were used for special support roles and may have had new and non- traditional functions assigned to them. A short list of examples includes residences, bathhouses, traditional functions assigned to them. A short
FIGURE 5. The average lifespan of un-hulked and hulked watercraft (rounded to nearest whole number; n=1,059 watercraft). (Drawing by N. Richards.) bridges, and breakwaters (Richards and May 2003) (Figure 4). The hulking of a vessel had substantial economic ramifications for a ship owner. While a ship owner may have pre- ferred the vessel to be in use forever, this was not likely. The next preference was to use a vessel for some purpose other than its original function, providing it with a very long lifespan. The analysis of the ANAVD illustrated that the economic advantages to hulking a vessel were substantial, adding up to 12 years to the time that a vessel could be used (Figure 5). This
FIGURE 5. The average lifespan of un-hulked and hulked watercraft (rounded to nearest whole number; n=1,059 watercraft). (Drawing by N. Richards.) bridges, and breakwaters (Richards and May 2003) (Figure 4). The hulking of a vessel had substantial economic ramifications for a ship owner. While a ship owner may have pre- ferred the vessel to be in use forever, this was not likely. The next preference was to use a vessel for some purpose other than its original function, providing it with a very long lifespan. The analysis of the ANAVD illustrated that the economic advantages to hulking a vessel were substantial, adding up to 12 years to the time that a vessel could be used (Figure 5). This
IGURE 6. The average lifespan of abandoned watercraft, 1790-1990 (n=1,059 watercraft). (Drawing by N. ichards.) It is clear from historical sources in Australia and abroad that certain processes in the
IGURE 6. The average lifespan of abandoned watercraft, 1790-1990 (n=1,059 watercraft). (Drawing by N. ichards.) It is clear from historical sources in Australia and abroad that certain processes in the
FIGURE 7. The remains of the Norwegian barque Marga- ret burning, Albany, Western Australia. (Courtesy of the Department of Maritime Archaeology, Western Australian Maritime Museum, Richard McKenna Collection, Fremantle, Western Australia.) This study suggests that there are three main phases in the salvage of abandoned vessel remains: primary salvage (predepositional), where salvage occurs before final deposition or abandonment; secondary salvage (first-stage postdepositional), where salvage occurs soon after final discard; and tertiary salvage (second-stage postdepositional), where salvage occurs intermit- tently and opportunistically through time after abandonment. Many times, a vessel may not go through all three phases. In situations where
FIGURE 7. The remains of the Norwegian barque Marga- ret burning, Albany, Western Australia. (Courtesy of the Department of Maritime Archaeology, Western Australian Maritime Museum, Richard McKenna Collection, Fremantle, Western Australia.) This study suggests that there are three main phases in the salvage of abandoned vessel remains: primary salvage (predepositional), where salvage occurs before final deposition or abandonment; secondary salvage (first-stage postdepositional), where salvage occurs soon after final discard; and tertiary salvage (second-stage postdepositional), where salvage occurs intermit- tently and opportunistically through time after abandonment. Many times, a vessel may not go through all three phases. In situations where
FIGURE 8. Remains of the Grace Darling ca. 1931 showing evidence of predepositional salvage. Its intact nature shows the degree to which the hull was dismantled by ship-breakers before its final movement to the Garden Island Ships Graveyard. (Courtesy of the South Australian Maritime Museum, Port Adelaide, South Australia.) Hull-reduction strategies can also be a form of placement assurance, a term referring to the strategies used to ensure that a discarded vessel remains discarded. The scuttling or sinking of vessels at sea has often been the preferred option for the disposal of watercraft. This has traditionally been because of a desire not to litter the coastline with old wrecks and the “out of sight, out of mind” mentality that has predominated in human sea-dumping activi- ties. Whether someone has scuttled or beached While on most discarded ship hulls it is obvi- ous that some type of salvage has occurred, often evidence of predepositional salvage will not be detectable because postdepositional sal- vage activities will remove any evidence of the activity. In other cases, evidence of predeposi- tional salvage may not be clear because it has become confused with phases of postdepositional salvage. Indeed, the line between pre- and post- depositional salvage, from an archaeological per- spective, is blurred. Since salvagers often need to keep a vessel in a floating condition in order to get it to a final resting place (move it from ship-breaking yard to ships’ graveyard), the only evidence of postdepositional salvage may be the absence of material from areas crucial in main- taining vessel flotation. In this way, postdepo- sitional salvage activities are noticeable where ship-breakers have removed structural material
FIGURE 8. Remains of the Grace Darling ca. 1931 showing evidence of predepositional salvage. Its intact nature shows the degree to which the hull was dismantled by ship-breakers before its final movement to the Garden Island Ships Graveyard. (Courtesy of the South Australian Maritime Museum, Port Adelaide, South Australia.) Hull-reduction strategies can also be a form of placement assurance, a term referring to the strategies used to ensure that a discarded vessel remains discarded. The scuttling or sinking of vessels at sea has often been the preferred option for the disposal of watercraft. This has traditionally been because of a desire not to litter the coastline with old wrecks and the “out of sight, out of mind” mentality that has predominated in human sea-dumping activi- ties. Whether someone has scuttled or beached While on most discarded ship hulls it is obvi- ous that some type of salvage has occurred, often evidence of predepositional salvage will not be detectable because postdepositional sal- vage activities will remove any evidence of the activity. In other cases, evidence of predeposi- tional salvage may not be clear because it has become confused with phases of postdepositional salvage. Indeed, the line between pre- and post- depositional salvage, from an archaeological per- spective, is blurred. Since salvagers often need to keep a vessel in a floating condition in order to get it to a final resting place (move it from ship-breaking yard to ships’ graveyard), the only evidence of postdepositional salvage may be the absence of material from areas crucial in main- taining vessel flotation. In this way, postdepo- sitional salvage activities are noticeable where ship-breakers have removed structural material
FIGURE 9. Remains of the Grace Darling showing evi- dence of postdepositional salvage. The vessel has been salvaged to the point that it may no longer float, indicating the degree to which postdepositional dismantling of the hull has occurred. (Photo by N. Richards.)
FIGURE 9. Remains of the Grace Darling showing evi- dence of postdepositional salvage. The vessel has been salvaged to the point that it may no longer float, indicating the degree to which postdepositional dismantling of the hull has occurred. (Photo by N. Richards.)
FIGURE 10. Exploded metal plates in the bow of Garthneill, Garden Island, Port Adelaide, South Australia. This shows an example of hull-perforation activities concerned with placement assurance. (Photo by M. Staniforth, courtesy of Flinders University.) Obviously, the easiest method of breaching a vessel in order to inundate a hull is to open it to the sea. Predominantly, the use of explosives is the most common method of doing this (as shown in Figure 10). Likewise, historical literature and archaeological evidence attest to the filling of a salvaged hull with material to add weight. This will work against any residual buoyancy the salvaged and breached hull may retain. Rocks, cement, and gravel were just some of the mate-
FIGURE 10. Exploded metal plates in the bow of Garthneill, Garden Island, Port Adelaide, South Australia. This shows an example of hull-perforation activities concerned with placement assurance. (Photo by M. Staniforth, courtesy of Flinders University.) Obviously, the easiest method of breaching a vessel in order to inundate a hull is to open it to the sea. Predominantly, the use of explosives is the most common method of doing this (as shown in Figure 10). Likewise, historical literature and archaeological evidence attest to the filling of a salvaged hull with material to add weight. This will work against any residual buoyancy the salvaged and breached hull may retain. Rocks, cement, and gravel were just some of the mate-
FIGURE 11. An example of a placement assurance technique as seen in the remains of Jupiter, Mutton Cove, Port Adelaide, South Australia, showing a wooden pile driven through the bow of the vessel. (Photo by N. Richards.) ials used to fill abandoned watercraft. Wooden iles are also often associated with abandoned essels either to delineate disposal areas (ensur- ng safe navigation, and “penning” ships in), as he remnants of structures once designed to assist vith salvage activities, or to pin the ship to the mderlying substrate (Figure 11). Additionally he appropriate environment of abandonment is crucial factor in ensuring the placement assur- nce of beached vessels. Certain environmental onditions may also adversely affect particular ull-treatment procedures. At beached aban- lonment locations, ship-breakers who did not horoughly breach a discarded hull (with explo- ives or some other procedure) or who do not dequately weigh it down may see it move or ventually float away. Two environmental fac- ors, substrate (which may or may not fasten a hip in position) and tide (which may or may ot lift a ship from its position), play important oles in determining how much time, effort, and oresight are required to ensure that there will be 0 complications following abandonment. The nethod of beaching and the speed and orienta- Shipbuilders construct watercraft to particular technological standards within the economic parameters dictated by a potential ship owner. Standards exist within a flux of diverse, chang- ing conditions that see watercraft pass through an array of systemic, techno-economic reas- signments. As tools of commerce, vessels invariably come to their end within a causal and behavioral spectrum—at one end, cata- strophically lost and, at the other, deliberately discarded. This research has suggested that discarded vessels require different theoretical models than shipwrecks, since catastrophe plays no role in making them a part of the archaeo- logical record. The array of decision-making processes that structures the abandonment makes these vessels, more than shipwrecks, reflections of changing techno-economic circumstances. of changing techno-economic circumstances. method of beaching and the speed and orienta-
FIGURE 11. An example of a placement assurance technique as seen in the remains of Jupiter, Mutton Cove, Port Adelaide, South Australia, showing a wooden pile driven through the bow of the vessel. (Photo by N. Richards.) ials used to fill abandoned watercraft. Wooden iles are also often associated with abandoned essels either to delineate disposal areas (ensur- ng safe navigation, and “penning” ships in), as he remnants of structures once designed to assist vith salvage activities, or to pin the ship to the mderlying substrate (Figure 11). Additionally he appropriate environment of abandonment is crucial factor in ensuring the placement assur- nce of beached vessels. Certain environmental onditions may also adversely affect particular ull-treatment procedures. At beached aban- lonment locations, ship-breakers who did not horoughly breach a discarded hull (with explo- ives or some other procedure) or who do not dequately weigh it down may see it move or ventually float away. Two environmental fac- ors, substrate (which may or may not fasten a hip in position) and tide (which may or may ot lift a ship from its position), play important oles in determining how much time, effort, and oresight are required to ensure that there will be 0 complications following abandonment. The nethod of beaching and the speed and orienta- Shipbuilders construct watercraft to particular technological standards within the economic parameters dictated by a potential ship owner. Standards exist within a flux of diverse, chang- ing conditions that see watercraft pass through an array of systemic, techno-economic reas- signments. As tools of commerce, vessels invariably come to their end within a causal and behavioral spectrum—at one end, cata- strophically lost and, at the other, deliberately discarded. This research has suggested that discarded vessels require different theoretical models than shipwrecks, since catastrophe plays no role in making them a part of the archaeo- logical record. The array of decision-making processes that structures the abandonment makes these vessels, more than shipwrecks, reflections of changing techno-economic circumstances. of changing techno-economic circumstances. method of beaching and the speed and orienta-
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