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Abbreviation: KNN, K-Nearest Neighbour. TABLE 8 Performance of the optimised multi-class KNN model.

Table 8 Abbreviation: KNN, K-Nearest Neighbour. TABLE 8 Performance of the optimised multi-class KNN model.

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FIGURE 1 A proposed overview of non-intrusive load monitoring system architecture. A visual overview of the proposed NILM system is re pre- sented in Figure 1. The NILM system architecture shown in the figure consists mainly of a smart energy metre w records the aggregated power of the powered commercial residential loads. At the heart or focal point of this N architecture is an Al-based model which utilises an embedded algorithm that identifies, separates, and monitors the energy consumption profile of the connected loads. Data sam from this system is practically analysed by the mode identify appliances, make predictions, and provide recom- mendations to ultimately achieve the important goals of monitoring, hich and LM pled to Oad Since the inception of machine learning, several algorithms such as the Markov models, finite mixture models, Viterbi and Baum—Welch algorithms have been proposed and developed to solve high-level computations by analysing huge data and
FIGURE 1 A proposed overview of non-intrusive load monitoring system architecture. A visual overview of the proposed NILM system is re pre- sented in Figure 1. The NILM system architecture shown in the figure consists mainly of a smart energy metre w records the aggregated power of the powered commercial residential loads. At the heart or focal point of this N architecture is an Al-based model which utilises an embedded algorithm that identifies, separates, and monitors the energy consumption profile of the connected loads. Data sam from this system is practically analysed by the mode identify appliances, make predictions, and provide recom- mendations to ultimately achieve the important goals of monitoring, hich and LM pled to Oad Since the inception of machine learning, several algorithms such as the Markov models, finite mixture models, Viterbi and Baum—Welch algorithms have been proposed and developed to solve high-level computations by analysing huge data and
Abbreviation: DRED, Dutch Residential Energy Dataset.
Abbreviation: DRED, Dutch Residential Energy Dataset.
FIGURE 2 Non-intrusive load monitoring system block diagram. Consumer load signature information is obtained in NILM systems via data acquisition and processing. Acquisition of data is achieved by employing a current and voltage sensor in the The modified KNN algorithm-based NILM model is trained and tested on the DRED. This is a well-known and open- source dataset obtained from monitoring the aggregated and appliance-specific power consumption from a household in the Netherlands. Aggregated and appliance (load)-specific power consumptions were collected continuously over a 6-month period (dated 5 July to 5 December 2015) at a sampling fre- quency of 1 Hz (low-frequency sampling). In achieving this, a mesh network of plugs was installed, communicated through a Zigbee protocol, and a non-proprietary library (python-plug- wise) was used to query the data acquired from the plugs. Based on this, a microcontroller was then utilised to produce periodic queries and store data. The dataset also contained other standalone data such as ambient, occupancy and household information [41] available as “.csv’ files. Readily available sensors were used to collect data for testing the performance of the disaggregation algorithms, deriving appli- ance usage behaviour and analysing demand response algo- rithms as shown in Table 1. TABLE 1 Parameters considered in obtaining the DRED dataset.
FIGURE 2 Non-intrusive load monitoring system block diagram. Consumer load signature information is obtained in NILM systems via data acquisition and processing. Acquisition of data is achieved by employing a current and voltage sensor in the The modified KNN algorithm-based NILM model is trained and tested on the DRED. This is a well-known and open- source dataset obtained from monitoring the aggregated and appliance-specific power consumption from a household in the Netherlands. Aggregated and appliance (load)-specific power consumptions were collected continuously over a 6-month period (dated 5 July to 5 December 2015) at a sampling fre- quency of 1 Hz (low-frequency sampling). In achieving this, a mesh network of plugs was installed, communicated through a Zigbee protocol, and a non-proprietary library (python-plug- wise) was used to query the data acquired from the plugs. Based on this, a microcontroller was then utilised to produce periodic queries and store data. The dataset also contained other standalone data such as ambient, occupancy and household information [41] available as “.csv’ files. Readily available sensors were used to collect data for testing the performance of the disaggregation algorithms, deriving appli- ance usage behaviour and analysing demand response algo- rithms as shown in Table 1. TABLE 1 Parameters considered in obtaining the DRED dataset.
FIGURE 3 Non-intrusive load monitoring hardware system flow chart.
FIGURE 3 Non-intrusive load monitoring hardware system flow chart.
FIGURE4 Non-intrusive load monitoring software system flow chart.
FIGURE4 Non-intrusive load monitoring software system flow chart.
FIGURE 5 Non-intrusive load monitoring prototype circuit representation.
FIGURE 5 Non-intrusive load monitoring prototype circuit representation.
FIGURE 6 Aggregated daily power consumption.
FIGURE 6 Aggregated daily power consumption.
FIGURE 7 Aggregated power consumption with respect to hout.
FIGURE 7 Aggregated power consumption with respect to hout.
FIGURE 9 _ Appliance-specific power consumption with respect to hour. FIGURE 8 _ Appliance-specific power consumption with respect to days.
FIGURE 9 _ Appliance-specific power consumption with respect to hour. FIGURE 8 _ Appliance-specific power consumption with respect to days.
Abbreviations: MAE, mean absolute error; MSE, mean squared error, RMSE, root mean squared error. TABLE 2 Performance of selected regression models.
Abbreviations: MAE, mean absolute error; MSE, mean squared error, RMSE, root mean squared error. TABLE 2 Performance of selected regression models.
FIGURE 10 The best performing Non-intrusive load monitoring regression model.
FIGURE 10 The best performing Non-intrusive load monitoring regression model.
TABLE 3 Prediction of the aggregated consumptions in the first 16 days in July 2024. positive correlation generally between power consumption and carbon emission as a result of the excessive use of fossil fuels. Even so, this correlation is greatly influenced by factors such as the energy mix, improvements in technology and policy interventions. Hence, the nearly 2.5 W daily or 1 kW annual power saving is expected to practically bear a direct and indirect impact on the rate of emissions on the global scale.
TABLE 3 Prediction of the aggregated consumptions in the first 16 days in July 2024. positive correlation generally between power consumption and carbon emission as a result of the excessive use of fossil fuels. Even so, this correlation is greatly influenced by factors such as the energy mix, improvements in technology and policy interventions. Hence, the nearly 2.5 W daily or 1 kW annual power saving is expected to practically bear a direct and indirect impact on the rate of emissions on the global scale.
TABLE 4 Prediction of the aggregated consumptions in the first 16 days in July 2025. 5.5 | Forecast or prediction of the appliance power consumption for next years
TABLE 4 Prediction of the aggregated consumptions in the first 16 days in July 2025. 5.5 | Forecast or prediction of the appliance power consumption for next years
FIGURE 11 Forecast or prediction of aggregated consumption for the next years.
FIGURE 11 Forecast or prediction of aggregated consumption for the next years.
FIGURE 12 Forecast or prediction of appliance consumption for the next years.
FIGURE 12 Forecast or prediction of appliance consumption for the next years.
performance of the selected classification models was observed accordingly. Table 6 expressed the results of the classifier models with regard to accuracy, precision, recall and (F1) score. The classification metrics composed of precision, recall, Fi score, and accuracy were mathematically determined by the models using Equations (20-23), respectively. Thus, in these equations, TP, TN, Based on the comp various default mod arative analysis of t imperatively provided a relatively good approximately 69.9 value of 0.7751 ind with about 77.51% these, an Fl score moderately balanced % of positive predictions of all positive instances. of 0.6845 implicated an metrics. Furthermore, the model correctly c stances in the dataset with an accuracy of 77 values of at most 1.0 for the precision, recal icated that the model correctly identified trade-off between the precision and recall EN and FP denoted the true positive, true negative, false negative and false positive values, respectively. he performance of the els in Table 6, the K-Neighbour classifier precision with made. A recall n reference to acceptable and assified all in- 51%. Numeric , Fl score and
performance of the selected classification models was observed accordingly. Table 6 expressed the results of the classifier models with regard to accuracy, precision, recall and (F1) score. The classification metrics composed of precision, recall, Fi score, and accuracy were mathematically determined by the models using Equations (20-23), respectively. Thus, in these equations, TP, TN, Based on the comp various default mod arative analysis of t imperatively provided a relatively good approximately 69.9 value of 0.7751 ind with about 77.51% these, an Fl score moderately balanced % of positive predictions of all positive instances. of 0.6845 implicated an metrics. Furthermore, the model correctly c stances in the dataset with an accuracy of 77 values of at most 1.0 for the precision, recal icated that the model correctly identified trade-off between the precision and recall EN and FP denoted the true positive, true negative, false negative and false positive values, respectively. he performance of the els in Table 6, the K-Neighbour classifier precision with made. A recall n reference to acceptable and assified all in- 51%. Numeric , Fl score and
TABLE 6_ Performance of selected classification models.
TABLE 6_ Performance of selected classification models.
TABLE 5 Prediction of appliance power consumption in the first 16 days in July 2024.
TABLE 5 Prediction of appliance power consumption in the first 16 days in July 2024.
FIGURE 13 Classification results based on false positive, false negative, true positive and true negative.
FIGURE 13 Classification results based on false positive, false negative, true positive and true negative.
FIGURE 14 A t-Stochastic Neighbour Embedding scatter plot of the confusion matrix.
FIGURE 14 A t-Stochastic Neighbour Embedding scatter plot of the confusion matrix.
Abbreviation: KNN, K-Nearest Neighbour. TABLE 7 Best hyperparameters selected for the optimised multi-class KNN model.
Abbreviation: KNN, K-Nearest Neighbour. TABLE 7 Best hyperparameters selected for the optimised multi-class KNN model.
TABLE 9 Summary of operational characteristics of DRED appliances. Abbreviation: DRED, Dutch Residential Energy Dataset.
TABLE 9 Summary of operational characteristics of DRED appliances. Abbreviation: DRED, Dutch Residential Energy Dataset.
FIGURE 15 Optimised multiclass K-Neighbour classification results.
FIGURE 15 Optimised multiclass K-Neighbour classification results.
FIGURE 16 Optimised multiclass K-Nearest Neighbour model t-Stochastic Neighbour Embedding scatter plot.
FIGURE 16 Optimised multiclass K-Nearest Neighbour model t-Stochastic Neighbour Embedding scatter plot.
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