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Fig. 4. Upper depositional level of the second chamber of structure 10042—10049. ps [Se S22 Meares Sst In thei upper depositional level of the second chamber (SU 535) (Fig. 4) the finds comprised five ceramic pots (two complete plates — one with red pigment — and two half plates, one of them also with red stains), one extraordinary rock crystal halberd, a set of 38 flint blades and 16 fragments, one flint arrow point, numerous ivory objects (most of them decorated and quite fragmented, between

Figure 4 Upper depositional level of the second chamber of structure 10042—10049. ps [Se S22 Meares Sst In thei upper depositional level of the second chamber (SU 535) (Fig. 4) the finds comprised five ceramic pots (two complete plates — one with red pigment — and two half plates, one of them also with red stains), one extraordinary rock crystal halberd, a set of 38 flint blades and 16 fragments, one flint arrow point, numerous ivory objects (most of them decorated and quite fragmented, between

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Fig. 1. Location of PP4-Montelirio sector of Valencina de la Concepcién archaeological site. Cinnabar is a red coloured mineral composed of mercury sulphide (HgS). As a pigment, cinnabar has been used to obtain the bright red colour known as vermilion, widely used by artists through history (Gettens et al., 1993). One of the oldest European references of the use of cinnabar dates back to the Neolithic site of Vinéa, Serbia (Mioé et al., 2004; Gaji¢-Kvascev et al., 2012). In the archaeological record of the Iberian Peninsula, the presence of cinnabar is detected as early as initial Neolithic at Cova de !’Or (Beniarrés, Valencia) (Domingo et al., in press; Garcia Borja et al. 2006; Roldan et al., 2008), at the Casa Montero (Madrid) Neolithic flint mine (Hunt Ortiz et al., 2011), the Neolithic levels of Cueva de los Murciélagos (Zuheros, Cordoba) (Gavilan and Rafael, 1999; Martinez-Fernandez et al., 1999) or the dolmen of Alberite (Villamartin, Cadiz) (Ramos et al., 1997). Cinnabar is also the main ore of mercury and its extraction is documented at least since Roman times (Agnoli et al., 2007; Mazzocchin et al., 2008; Spangenberg et al., 2010). Cinnabar origin, linked to magmatic and hydrothermal contexts, as impregnations and veins within rocks Paradoxically, in spite of its high scientific value and the large number of excavations undertaken, the data available for inter- pretation of the site are not abundant and have major limitations.
Fig. 1. Location of PP4-Montelirio sector of Valencina de la Concepcién archaeological site. Cinnabar is a red coloured mineral composed of mercury sulphide (HgS). As a pigment, cinnabar has been used to obtain the bright red colour known as vermilion, widely used by artists through history (Gettens et al., 1993). One of the oldest European references of the use of cinnabar dates back to the Neolithic site of Vinéa, Serbia (Mioé et al., 2004; Gaji¢-Kvascev et al., 2012). In the archaeological record of the Iberian Peninsula, the presence of cinnabar is detected as early as initial Neolithic at Cova de !’Or (Beniarrés, Valencia) (Domingo et al., in press; Garcia Borja et al. 2006; Roldan et al., 2008), at the Casa Montero (Madrid) Neolithic flint mine (Hunt Ortiz et al., 2011), the Neolithic levels of Cueva de los Murciélagos (Zuheros, Cordoba) (Gavilan and Rafael, 1999; Martinez-Fernandez et al., 1999) or the dolmen of Alberite (Villamartin, Cadiz) (Ramos et al., 1997). Cinnabar is also the main ore of mercury and its extraction is documented at least since Roman times (Agnoli et al., 2007; Mazzocchin et al., 2008; Spangenberg et al., 2010). Cinnabar origin, linked to magmatic and hydrothermal contexts, as impregnations and veins within rocks Paradoxically, in spite of its high scientific value and the large number of excavations undertaken, the data available for inter- pretation of the site are not abundant and have major limitations.
Fig. 3. Lower depositional level of the second burial chamber of structure 10042- 10049. In the space between the access passage and the first chamber, skeletal remains of four individuals were identified as well as more than 2000 beads and red pigment, four fragments of a fired clay figurine, more than 800 potsherds (some of them intrusive wheel- thrown pottery), fragments of 12 arrowheads, 3 blade fragments, a quantity of chipping debris, ivory objects (very fragmented, and some of them decorated), two specimens of marine shell, several fragments of terrestrial snails, antlers and several intrusive iron fragments.
Fig. 3. Lower depositional level of the second burial chamber of structure 10042- 10049. In the space between the access passage and the first chamber, skeletal remains of four individuals were identified as well as more than 2000 beads and red pigment, four fragments of a fired clay figurine, more than 800 potsherds (some of them intrusive wheel- thrown pottery), fragments of 12 arrowheads, 3 blade fragments, a quantity of chipping debris, ivory objects (very fragmented, and some of them decorated), two specimens of marine shell, several fragments of terrestrial snails, antlers and several intrusive iron fragments.
Fig. 2. Aerial view of 10042—10049 megalithic structure. Structure 10042—10049 is the remains of a two-chambered megalithic construction. This consisted of an access passage made of 57 slate slabs (29 on the north side, 28 on the south), and a further 13 slabs inside. With a maximum length of 13 m and 0.7 m maximum width, the passage is subdivided by small slate lintels into three sections of 6.8 m, 2.4 m and 2.8 m respectively. At the end of the last of these is the first chamber which has a maximum diameter of 2.57 m, and in which only five slate slabs were found in their original positions delimiting the chamber, and another 3 slabs over it. This first chamber had been disturbed by the trenches of an archaeological survey in 1998. Beyond the first chamber, a second corridor of 2.52 m by 0.51 m and constituted of 15 slate slabs (7 on the north side and 8 on the south) separates the first and the second burial chambers. The second chamber, found in a better state of preservation than the first, has a maximum diameter of 2.1 m and is formed of 23 slabs. The excavation allowed the detection of two independent deposits separated by a “pavement” of 22 slate slabs, interpreted as either a seal for the lower depositional level or as the product of a collapse of slabs. Above the upper depositional level, 12 more slate slabs were found.
Fig. 2. Aerial view of 10042—10049 megalithic structure. Structure 10042—10049 is the remains of a two-chambered megalithic construction. This consisted of an access passage made of 57 slate slabs (29 on the north side, 28 on the south), and a further 13 slabs inside. With a maximum length of 13 m and 0.7 m maximum width, the passage is subdivided by small slate lintels into three sections of 6.8 m, 2.4 m and 2.8 m respectively. At the end of the last of these is the first chamber which has a maximum diameter of 2.57 m, and in which only five slate slabs were found in their original positions delimiting the chamber, and another 3 slabs over it. This first chamber had been disturbed by the trenches of an archaeological survey in 1998. Beyond the first chamber, a second corridor of 2.52 m by 0.51 m and constituted of 15 slate slabs (7 on the north side and 8 on the south) separates the first and the second burial chambers. The second chamber, found in a better state of preservation than the first, has a maximum diameter of 2.1 m and is formed of 23 slabs. The excavation allowed the detection of two independent deposits separated by a “pavement” of 22 slate slabs, interpreted as either a seal for the lower depositional level or as the product of a collapse of slabs. Above the upper depositional level, 12 more slate slabs were found.
SU: Stratigraphic unit. Samples studied in this work. 2.2. Samples Table 1
SU: Stratigraphic unit. Samples studied in this work. 2.2. Samples Table 1
In order to obtain a complete characterisation of the natural state of the soil clays of the site, earth surrounding structure 10042—10049 and the content of a complete hemispherical bowl of To summarise, this burial structure contains a remarkably rich assemblage of grave goods including more than 50 objects in the first chamber and the passage, more than 30 objects in the first depositional level and more than 70 in the second level of the second chamber. This is the only structure in the PP4-Montelirio sector in which the use of red pigment has been detected. The rich set of grave goods recorded in the lower depositional level of the second chamber (SU 664) may be safely attributed to a single individual, which underlines the high social position of this person (see further discussion below). Fig. 5. XRD patterns corresponding to (a) sample 01-C1 showing the presence of cinnabar on the ceramic paste (b) sample ML-05 showing the presence of cinnabar on ivor surface.
In order to obtain a complete characterisation of the natural state of the soil clays of the site, earth surrounding structure 10042—10049 and the content of a complete hemispherical bowl of To summarise, this burial structure contains a remarkably rich assemblage of grave goods including more than 50 objects in the first chamber and the passage, more than 30 objects in the first depositional level and more than 70 in the second level of the second chamber. This is the only structure in the PP4-Montelirio sector in which the use of red pigment has been detected. The rich set of grave goods recorded in the lower depositional level of the second chamber (SU 664) may be safely attributed to a single individual, which underlines the high social position of this person (see further discussion below). Fig. 5. XRD patterns corresponding to (a) sample 01-C1 showing the presence of cinnabar on the ceramic paste (b) sample ML-05 showing the presence of cinnabar on ivor surface.
Fig. 6. XRD spectrum of samples (a) 01-H1; (b) 01-H2; and (c) O2-H2.
Fig. 6. XRD spectrum of samples (a) 01-H1; (b) 01-H2; and (c) O2-H2.
Fig. 7. SEM images (a) pigments particles dispersed on the ceramic surface (b) the morphology detail of the cinnabar particle into the pottery (c) iron oxides crystals mixture with cinnabar particles over pottery (d) EDX spectra of the cinnabar and iron oxides pigments found into the pottery surface.
Fig. 7. SEM images (a) pigments particles dispersed on the ceramic surface (b) the morphology detail of the cinnabar particle into the pottery (c) iron oxides crystals mixture with cinnabar particles over pottery (d) EDX spectra of the cinnabar and iron oxides pigments found into the pottery surface.
Elemental composition of the different samples studied throughout X-ray microfluorescence.
Elemental composition of the different samples studied throughout X-ray microfluorescence.
Fig. 8. SEM images (a) showing a microbial biofilm developing over the osteonic compact ivory surface of sample 01-H2 (b) the morphology detail of the cinnabar particl embedded into the ivory surface (c) EDX spectra of the ivory surface and cinnabar particles found into the ivory.
Fig. 8. SEM images (a) showing a microbial biofilm developing over the osteonic compact ivory surface of sample 01-H2 (b) the morphology detail of the cinnabar particl embedded into the ivory surface (c) EDX spectra of the ivory surface and cinnabar particles found into the ivory.
Fig. 9. 4. XRF spectra comparison between pottery paste fragment and scrapping red stained over the pottery. The application of various characterisation techniques reveals that the red pigment found covering both the inhumation and grave goods of structure 10042—10049 at PP4-Montelirio has as
Fig. 9. 4. XRF spectra comparison between pottery paste fragment and scrapping red stained over the pottery. The application of various characterisation techniques reveals that the red pigment found covering both the inhumation and grave goods of structure 10042—10049 at PP4-Montelirio has as
Fig. 10. (a) SEM image showing a surface of the bone sample 02-H2 including a tita- nium crystal on the surface related to the clay sediments (b) EDX spectra of the bone surface including punctual analysis of the titanium crystals associated with rutile structure.
Fig. 10. (a) SEM image showing a surface of the bone sample 02-H2 including a tita- nium crystal on the surface related to the clay sediments (b) EDX spectra of the bone surface including punctual analysis of the titanium crystals associated with rutile structure.
Fig. 11. (a), (c), (e) Optical images of the Raman measurements areas of the different samples (b) Raman spectra of cinnabar associated with the red pigment including phosphate related to the ivory and bone surfaces (d) and (f) Raman spectra of cinnabar associated with the red pigments over ivory and pottery. (For interpretation of the references to colou in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
Fig. 11. (a), (c), (e) Optical images of the Raman measurements areas of the different samples (b) Raman spectra of cinnabar associated with the red pigment including phosphate related to the ivory and bone surfaces (d) and (f) Raman spectra of cinnabar associated with the red pigments over ivory and pottery. (For interpretation of the references to colou in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
red colour of the cinnabar is in itself proof of the integrity of the grave because exposure to light provokes darkening of the pigment (Keune and Boon, 2005). Moreover, no degradation products of cinnabar, as sulphides, have been detected in the structure 10042— 10049 samples. presence of cinnabar in burial contexts. In their work, the authors discuss this association as a possible indicator of stipulated and coordinated exchange circuits. Both in the cases of PP4-Montelirio structure 10042—10049 and Matarrubilla this association of elements occurs, enriched in the latter case with the presence of elements of “calaite” (a synonym for turquoise or, in general, green stones) and, in the former, with the presence of amber, both of
red colour of the cinnabar is in itself proof of the integrity of the grave because exposure to light provokes darkening of the pigment (Keune and Boon, 2005). Moreover, no degradation products of cinnabar, as sulphides, have been detected in the structure 10042— 10049 samples. presence of cinnabar in burial contexts. In their work, the authors discuss this association as a possible indicator of stipulated and coordinated exchange circuits. Both in the cases of PP4-Montelirio structure 10042—10049 and Matarrubilla this association of elements occurs, enriched in the latter case with the presence of elements of “calaite” (a synonym for turquoise or, in general, green stones) and, in the former, with the presence of amber, both of
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