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Table 9. An overview of hydrometallurgical techniques for recovering cathode from used LIBs.

Table 9 An overview of hydrometallurgical techniques for recovering cathode from used LIBs.

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At present, gasoline-fueled cars have been replaced with lithium-ion batteries; this substitution reduces carbon gas emissions to the atmosphere hence, improving the eco- logical impact [44]. Moreover, the high electrical performance of LIBs may enable their usage in a variety of applications for the electric grid, such as improving the quality of energy obtained from renewable sources such as wind, solar, geothermal, and others [45]. Therefore, LIBs have become the prime focus of interest for both industry and government funding agencies [45]. Figure 1. (a) The largest battery producers are situated in areas where there is a considerable demand for EVs and (b) world countries with the highest lithium production [39,46].
At present, gasoline-fueled cars have been replaced with lithium-ion batteries; this substitution reduces carbon gas emissions to the atmosphere hence, improving the eco- logical impact [44]. Moreover, the high electrical performance of LIBs may enable their usage in a variety of applications for the electric grid, such as improving the quality of energy obtained from renewable sources such as wind, solar, geothermal, and others [45]. Therefore, LIBs have become the prime focus of interest for both industry and government funding agencies [45]. Figure 1. (a) The largest battery producers are situated in areas where there is a considerable demand for EVs and (b) world countries with the highest lithium production [39,46].
Figure 4a shows the basic schematic and working fundamental of the lithium-ion yattery cell. Commercial LIBs are constructed by using layer-type compounds; the posi- ive electrode, which is the cathode, uses lithium cobalt oxide (LiCoO>,), LiNiO2 (LNO), siMn Oy, (LMO), LiFePO, (LFP), LiNixCoy-.AlO2 (NCA), and LiNixMnyCozO2 (NMC) [36]; he negative electrode, which is the anode, use graphite (C); and meanwhile, the electrolyte s a nonaqueous Li-ion [48]. For the charging process, the electrical supply is connected to he two electrodes as shown in Figure 4a. The electrons will be driven to leave the cathode nd go to the anode by this. When moving from cathode to anode through the electrolyte, he lithium ions do so concurrently in the same direction. The anode and cathode parts of the battery, therefore, contain electrochemical energy [53]. The reactions which occur hrough the lithium-ion and electron generation are as follows: a. 1 F camer
Figure 4a shows the basic schematic and working fundamental of the lithium-ion yattery cell. Commercial LIBs are constructed by using layer-type compounds; the posi- ive electrode, which is the cathode, uses lithium cobalt oxide (LiCoO>,), LiNiO2 (LNO), siMn Oy, (LMO), LiFePO, (LFP), LiNixCoy-.AlO2 (NCA), and LiNixMnyCozO2 (NMC) [36]; he negative electrode, which is the anode, use graphite (C); and meanwhile, the electrolyte s a nonaqueous Li-ion [48]. For the charging process, the electrical supply is connected to he two electrodes as shown in Figure 4a. The electrons will be driven to leave the cathode nd go to the anode by this. When moving from cathode to anode through the electrolyte, he lithium ions do so concurrently in the same direction. The anode and cathode parts of the battery, therefore, contain electrochemical energy [53]. The reactions which occur hrough the lithium-ion and electron generation are as follows: a. 1 F camer
To transmit energy during the discharge process, the electron from the anode travels to the cathode through a wire that passes through an external load [80]. Simultaneously, Li ions from the anode travel through the electrolyte to the cathode. Shuttle chair refers to the movement of Li ions between the anode and cathode during charge and discharge cycles [81]. Figure 4. (a) Schematic diagram of a lithium-ion battery and (b) electrode potentials and the elec trolyte energy gaps relative energies in LIBs [82,83].
To transmit energy during the discharge process, the electron from the anode travels to the cathode through a wire that passes through an external load [80]. Simultaneously, Li ions from the anode travel through the electrolyte to the cathode. Shuttle chair refers to the movement of Li ions between the anode and cathode during charge and discharge cycles [81]. Figure 4. (a) Schematic diagram of a lithium-ion battery and (b) electrode potentials and the elec trolyte energy gaps relative energies in LIBs [82,83].
Table 1. Typical lithium-ion battery cell components [86]. 2.1. Anode
Table 1. Typical lithium-ion battery cell components [86]. 2.1. Anode
Table 2. Properties of different anode materials.
Table 2. Properties of different anode materials.
Figure 5. (a) Schematic structure of graphene sheet and (b) atomic configuration simulations of the AA arrangement in graphene sheets [92]. it being a highly available material and having high reactivity with alkali metal anodes [91]. Moreover, it was discovered that the graphite intercalation alloy has the capability to shield the lithium, thus formulating the anode to be less reactive towards electrolyte [88]. A variety of graphene sheet types are organized in graphite either in hexagonal (AB) or rhombohedral (ABC) arrangements [89]. Figure 5 illustrates the basic graphene sheet.
Figure 5. (a) Schematic structure of graphene sheet and (b) atomic configuration simulations of the AA arrangement in graphene sheets [92]. it being a highly available material and having high reactivity with alkali metal anodes [91]. Moreover, it was discovered that the graphite intercalation alloy has the capability to shield the lithium, thus formulating the anode to be less reactive towards electrolyte [88]. A variety of graphene sheet types are organized in graphite either in hexagonal (AB) or rhombohedral (ABC) arrangements [89]. Figure 5 illustrates the basic graphene sheet.
Figure 6. Voltage versus the capacity of various lithium-ion batteries [160]. Currently, there are numerous types of research on cathode material that have been investigated for Li-ion batteries [51,152—154] because the vital source of all Li ions in a lithium-ion battery is located at the cathode (positive electrode) [155]. Therefore, the decision on selecting positive electrodes relies upon rechargeable Li-metal or Li-ion batteries as shown in Figure 6. Li-metal will serve as a negatively charged electrode in rechargeable Li batteries, preventing lithiation with the positive electrode [156,157]. However, for Li-ion batteries, the positive source needs to act as a source of Li, due to the unfilled Li located in carbon-negative electrodes [158]. Nowadays, there are several types of cathode material that are used as shown in Table 3. The most commonly used cathodes are lithium cobalt oxide (LiCoO2) and lithium iron phosphate (LiFePOx) [159].
Figure 6. Voltage versus the capacity of various lithium-ion batteries [160]. Currently, there are numerous types of research on cathode material that have been investigated for Li-ion batteries [51,152—154] because the vital source of all Li ions in a lithium-ion battery is located at the cathode (positive electrode) [155]. Therefore, the decision on selecting positive electrodes relies upon rechargeable Li-metal or Li-ion batteries as shown in Figure 6. Li-metal will serve as a negatively charged electrode in rechargeable Li batteries, preventing lithiation with the positive electrode [156,157]. However, for Li-ion batteries, the positive source needs to act as a source of Li, due to the unfilled Li located in carbon-negative electrodes [158]. Nowadays, there are several types of cathode material that are used as shown in Table 3. The most commonly used cathodes are lithium cobalt oxide (LiCoO2) and lithium iron phosphate (LiFePOx) [159].
Table 3. Characteristics for different types of battery electrode materials.
Table 3. Characteristics for different types of battery electrode materials.
Table 4. List of basic electrolyte characteristics.
Table 4. List of basic electrolyte characteristics.
Table 5. Different types of electrolytes. 3. Fabrication Technique of LIBs
Table 5. Different types of electrolytes. 3. Fabrication Technique of LIBs
Figure 7. Various cell designs include (a) cylindrical; (b) prismatic; (c) pouch [255]. There are three different cell types used in the production of Li-ion batteries: cylindri- cal, prismatic, and pouch (Figure 7). Additionally, the manufacturing methods for these cells are one of the primary emphases of this work [254].
Figure 7. Various cell designs include (a) cylindrical; (b) prismatic; (c) pouch [255]. There are three different cell types used in the production of Li-ion batteries: cylindri- cal, prismatic, and pouch (Figure 7). Additionally, the manufacturing methods for these cells are one of the primary emphases of this work [254].
Figure 8. A general description of the Li-ion battery development process [258].
Figure 8. A general description of the Li-ion battery development process [258].
Table 6. Specific energy, specific power, energy density, and power density.
Table 6. Specific energy, specific power, energy density, and power density.
Table 7. A list of lithium-ion batteries and their functioning characteristics [284]. Another advancement is the fast charge or temperature working window, which may be adjusted thanks to the wide range of cell design options. Chen et al. [285] suggested that for adaptive online capacity prediction while receiving fast charging, a long short- term memory network-based transfer learning strategy may be created. In this research, a revolutionary voltage function is added that allows for a quick 10 minutes charge to reach an 80% state of charge. This attribute is extremely useful and is simple to test in all rapid charging scenarios.
Table 7. A list of lithium-ion batteries and their functioning characteristics [284]. Another advancement is the fast charge or temperature working window, which may be adjusted thanks to the wide range of cell design options. Chen et al. [285] suggested that for adaptive online capacity prediction while receiving fast charging, a long short- term memory network-based transfer learning strategy may be created. In this research, a revolutionary voltage function is added that allows for a quick 10 minutes charge to reach an 80% state of charge. This attribute is extremely useful and is simple to test in all rapid charging scenarios.
Table 8. Latest research on improvements in pyrometallurgical recycling [288,311-315]
Table 8. Latest research on improvements in pyrometallurgical recycling [288,311-315]
Figure 11. The main types of recycling processes for metal-ion batteries [288].
Figure 11. The main types of recycling processes for metal-ion batteries [288].
Table 9. Cont.
Table 9. Cont.
Prior to direct recycling, it is best to identify the most effective ways to separate cathode and anode from single or mixed batches, as well as to eliminate Al/Cu-foils. It is unknown whether identical formulations might be separated from one another, even though magnetic separation is covered by a patent. Moreover, it may not be cost-effective The possibility of direct recovery of high-value cathode products would be made possible by techniques for isolating cathodes from one another or for utilizing a mixed product [336] Instead of traditional recycling, direct recycling technology substitute [337]. However, it must overcome a num commercially. A uniform direct recycling procedure direct recycling requires customized processes with for different battery materials [338]. Separation and active materials are the two key components of the ber has par has been suggested as a possible of obstacles before being used not yet been developed, since ticular rejuvenation conditions he revitalization and upcycling of direct recycling process. In order to improve the electrochemical performance of recycled frequently required for repair, rejuvenation, and upcyc process flowsheet is shown in Figure 12. ing materials, further actions are [339]. A typical direct recycling Figure 12. A conceptual illustration of the direct recycling process.
Prior to direct recycling, it is best to identify the most effective ways to separate cathode and anode from single or mixed batches, as well as to eliminate Al/Cu-foils. It is unknown whether identical formulations might be separated from one another, even though magnetic separation is covered by a patent. Moreover, it may not be cost-effective The possibility of direct recovery of high-value cathode products would be made possible by techniques for isolating cathodes from one another or for utilizing a mixed product [336] Instead of traditional recycling, direct recycling technology substitute [337]. However, it must overcome a num commercially. A uniform direct recycling procedure direct recycling requires customized processes with for different battery materials [338]. Separation and active materials are the two key components of the ber has par has been suggested as a possible of obstacles before being used not yet been developed, since ticular rejuvenation conditions he revitalization and upcycling of direct recycling process. In order to improve the electrochemical performance of recycled frequently required for repair, rejuvenation, and upcyc process flowsheet is shown in Figure 12. ing materials, further actions are [339]. A typical direct recycling Figure 12. A conceptual illustration of the direct recycling process.
Figure 13. The applications of LIBs in different markets [343]. The growing consumer market currently largely involves the use of LIBs for several forms of electronics, such as smartphones, smartwatches, computers, laptops, and power banks (Figure 13) [340]. Moreover, in the vehicle market, many electric automobiles includ- ing cars, trucks, scooters, and motorcycles also make use of LIBs [56]. After recognizing the significant benefits of LIBs, a large majority of countries are committing to the integration of electric vehicles (EVs) [341]. Meanwhile, in 2018, China’s EVs have been reported to account for roughly 4.40% of all 28.1 million automobiles sold worldwide, which when compared to the USA and Europe, is much higher, with just over 2% and around 3%, respectively [342].
Figure 13. The applications of LIBs in different markets [343]. The growing consumer market currently largely involves the use of LIBs for several forms of electronics, such as smartphones, smartwatches, computers, laptops, and power banks (Figure 13) [340]. Moreover, in the vehicle market, many electric automobiles includ- ing cars, trucks, scooters, and motorcycles also make use of LIBs [56]. After recognizing the significant benefits of LIBs, a large majority of countries are committing to the integration of electric vehicles (EVs) [341]. Meanwhile, in 2018, China’s EVs have been reported to account for roughly 4.40% of all 28.1 million automobiles sold worldwide, which when compared to the USA and Europe, is much higher, with just over 2% and around 3%, respectively [342].
Figure 14. Chinese LIB production from 2019 to 2023 [345].
Figure 14. Chinese LIB production from 2019 to 2023 [345].
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