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The length of the bamboo used in the rack method is 5-10 meters which serves as posts to the horizontal bar. The horizontal bar ranges from 5-30 meters depending on the size of the farm. Oysters and mussels are visible during low tide because river is already shallow. — Figure 15 The length of the bamboo used in the rack method is 5-10 meters which serves as posts to the horizontal bar. The horizontal bar ranges from 5-30 meters depending on the size of the farm. Oysters and mussels are visible during low tide because river is already shallow.

Related Figures (170)

In general terms, and in comparison to finfish and crustacean culture, bivalve mollusc aquaculture is characterized by relatively high production volumes per unit area, a low value product, requiring relatively little infrastructure, financial, management or exogenous nutritional inputs and having low environmental impacts. Table 3.1 Philippines Fisheries Production by Volume

A total of 4 regions, 7 provinces, 9 local municipalities and 60 individual stations were sampled, during both wet (approx. June - November) and dry (December - May) seasons, during the course of this study (Table 5.1).

PC =partner country, A = Australia )bjective 1: To collect comparative information, including preliminary quantitative lata and site selection issues, on bivalve production methods in Western Visayas ind Luzon

Objective 2: To collect and compare information on product quality, safety and post-harvest aspects of bivalve production between these regions and compare with international standards

Objective 3: To determine domestic and international market potential for Philippine bivalve species

PC =partner country, A = Australia Objective 4: To analyse legal and policy framework for aquaculture management, environmental impact, production, processing and marketing to determine compliance and regulatory influence on regional production and competitiveness

PC =partner country, A =Australia Objective 5: To develop second-phase proposal for quantitative assessment of critical factors affecting quantity and value of bivalve aquaculture

It was also noted that the green mussel, Perna viridis, was associated with the oysters, particularly in Batan, Malolos, Bolinao and Anda. In most sampled sites, a few tree oysters, Isognomon ephippium, also occurred with the cultured species. Crassostrea malabonensis is also reported from the Philippines but was not seen during our surveys.

able 7.1 Occurrence of S. cucullata and S. palmipes, absent (-) or present (+) in the oyster reas surveyed in Luzon and Western Visayas during 2007 / 2008.

The green mussel, Perna viridis, is the only mussel species cultured in the Philippines anc noted as such in the surveyed areas in Luzon and Western Visayas. In many farms, this single species is harvested, but in areas like Malolos and those mentioned earlier, the green mussel is harvested together with Crassostrea iredalei. One problem that affects the mussel industry, particularly in the Pangasinan area, is the proliferation of an unidentified mussel species (Fig. 7.3) which has become a pest and usually out-competes settled spat and affects growth of the green mussel. The maximum size observed was approximately 40mm. Fig. 7.3 Mussel species (tentatively identified as Musculus sp.) found as pest in the culture of Perna viridis at Anda and Bolina (Pangasinan province).

Table 7.2b Mussel (Perna viridis) morphometric data (shell and tissue) from mollusc aquaculture sites in Western Visayas. Samples coll first and second sampling periods, respectively, with month and season indicated at left. Values are pooled mean values (+SD)(sample : at left).

Table 7.2a Mussel (Perna viridis) morphometric data (shell and tissue) from mollusc aquaculture sites in Luzon. Samples collected during first and second sampling periods, respectively, with month and season indicated at left. Values are pooled mean values (+SD) (Sample sizes indicated at left). No data are available for Malolos because mussel sites are offshore.

Table7.2d Oyster (Crassostrea iredalei) morphometric data (shell and tissue) from mollusc aquaculture sites in Western Visayas. Samp! during first and second sampling periods respectively, with month and season indicated at left. Values are pooled mean values (+SD)(s indicated at left).

Table 7.3 Comparison of mussel and oyster morphometric data, based on region (Luzon or Visayas) and season (Dry or Wet). Data are pooled me of all samples from all sites within each region +SD (n= numbers in parentheses).

Table 7.4b Water quality data for Western Visayas; dissolved oxygen (DO), pH, temperature, TDS, salinity and conductivity from mc sites at indicated municipalities. Samples (1) and (2) collected during the month and season indicated at left and represent pooled | Sample sizes are equal, or relate to (1) and (2) respectively.

Table 7.4a Water quality data for Luzon; dissolved oxygen (DO), pH, temperature, TDS, salinity and conductivity from mollusc aquaculture sites at indicated municipalities. Samples (1) and (2) collected during the month and season indicated at left and represent pooled means (+SD). Sample sizes are equal, or relate to (1) and (2) respectively.

Table 7.5 Benthic sediment data; total organic matter, total available phosphorus and organic carbon from mollusc aquaculture sites at various municipalities in Luzon and Western Visayas. Samples (1) and (2) collected during the month and season indicated at left and represent pooled means (+SD). Sample sizes are equal, or relate to (1) and (2) respectively. Organic carbon data available for selected sites only.

Table 7.6b Statistical breakdown of areas surveyed for production and operational data. Municipalities, (Provinces) and number of respondents per cultured organism are shown. Table 7.6a Statistical breakdown of areas surveyed for production and operational data. Municipalities, (Provinces) and number of valid responses are shown.

Table 7.9a Preferred main culture methods by area and species. Numbers are individual respondents to survey questionnaire.

Table 7.9b Production (kg/m) between areas according to culture methods. Data are pooled means of samples from all sites within each region +SD (n= numbers in parentheses) Stock Management About 66% of the respondents said they have a method of determining spatfall which is mainly based on observations and experience. These included; assumption of seasonality of spatfall (19.5%), spat becoming visible on substrates (34%) or observed changes in the characteristics of the water (3%). Some farmers in Western Visayas normally set up spat collectors a month before assumed spattfall. Also, 66% of the respondents know the sources of spat.

Legend: (S1 )=first sampling ; (S2) =seconding sampling ; NT=not tested, (b)= mussel set-up was removed and culturing was discontinued by the grower; (c) =shellfish unavailable so sample (BAT-6) collected from another grower; (d) =oyster set-up was removed and discontinued

Legend: (S1 )=first sampling ; (S2) =seconding sampling ; NT=not tested, *sample was collected in the same station as H8 ble 7.11 Microbiological quality of shellfish and shellfish growing waters collected from different stations in Hinigaran and Himamaylan (Negros ‘cidental, Western Visayas)

Table 7.12 Microbiological quality of shellfish and adjacent waters collected from different sites in Luzon

Table 7.13 Microbiological standards for shellfish

Table 7.14 Classification of harvesting areas for shellfish in the EU (EC, 1991) The microbial loads in shellfish assessed in this study are relatively high and could pose risks to would-be consumers. Thus, measures should be taken to render the shellfish safe for consumption. One practical way of reducing the load to safer levels is relaying / purification / depuration, wherein the shellfish are allowed to cleanse themselves in their natural habitat from polluted to clean circulating seawater. Depuration can also be applied where the process of cleansing shellfish is done in tanks by flow-through or circulating water systems. Gacutan et al (1987) undertook depuration experiments using fiberglass- coated tanks with a capacity of 230-310 kg oyster and found gross decontamination after 48 hr or less in a moderate flow (710 L/min) of water. However, the latter method would be quite expensive, especially for small-scale growers. Guevarra (1982) made a study on home deputation using clean seawater with 3% iodine salt solution for 18-24 hr and bacterial load was effectively reduced. This method could be easily adopted at the household level. Post-harvest processing techniques such as heat processing or fermentation can also be applied to reduce bacterial load and transforming it into an alternative marketable product form.

Assets Used in Oyster/ Mussel Farming (2006)

* For rack and raft culture only.

Final report: Evaluation of production technology, product quality and market potential for the development of biva mollusc aquaculture in the Philippines

Information regarding all household members

Final report: Evaluation of production technology, product quality and market potential for the development of bival Mollusc aquaculture in the Philippines

Income from different sources:

2. Harvesting Profile

Other than you, who else participates in oyster/mussel harvesting?

4, How are the oysters/mussels...

Final report: Evaluation of production technology, product quality and market potential for the development of biva Mollusc aquaculture in the Philippines

Other Expenses

What are the types of fees that you pay related to fish marketing and processing and how much?

Are there problems in oyster/mussel culture? What are these?

Name the credit or lending institutions that you know and assess their accessibility (put a check)

Have you heard about eco-labelled products? What is it about? Are you a member of any environmental group or social association? Which group?

D. Postharvest, Processing and Quality

Final report: Evaluation of production technology, product quality and market potential for the development of bival mollusc aquaculture in the Philippines

Ill. Oyster/Mussel Selling Profile Final report: Evaluation of production technology, product quality and market potential for the development of bival Mollusc aquaculture in the Philippines

Do you know where the final destination of the oyster/mussel you market? If yes, where? -inal report: Evaluation of production technology, product quality and market potential for the development of bive mollusc aquaculture in the Philippines

IV. Processing of Oyster/Mussel

Assets/materials V. Marketing and Processing Investments and Costs

Indicate if the following facilities are present and name them

Name the credit or lending institutions that you know and assess their accessibility (put a check)

Final report: Evaluation of production technology, product quality and market potential for the development of bival mollusc aquaculture in the Philippines What are the types of fees that you pay related to fish marketing and processing and how much?

What marketing facilities do you think should be present and beneficial to oyster/mussel trade? Final report: Evaluation of production technology, product quality and market potential for the development of bival mollusc aquaculture in the Philippines VIII. Information Requirement and Regulations

Price profile all throughout the year? (high, low, medium)

Name the organization to which oyster/mussel traders and processors belong. X. Perceptions on the Following Degree of market competitions (high, medium, low, no competition, don’t know)—do pairwise comparison

Do you know of any regulations or restrictions in fish marketing? What are these? Final report: Evaluation of production technology, product quality and market potential for the development of biva mollusc aquaculture in the Philippines

What do you think are the factors affecting oyster/mussel price?

Figure 3. Comparison of oyster capture fisheries and aquaculture production. Source: FAO 2005 Oysters (Family Ostreidae), along with mussels (Family Mytilidae), have been important sources of human food and livelihood for thousands of years and, in a global context, these two taxa dominate commercial exploitation of molluscs today. In 1998, oysters alone contributed 3.7 million tonnes, or about 37.8% of the 9.8 million tonnes of total world bivalve production (aquaculture + capture) (Globefish 2000). The production of oyster worldwide increased to 4.7 million tonnes in 2003 (Fig. 3), with Crassostrea gigas (97%) overwhelmingly dominating global production (Fig. 4) (FAO 2005).

Figure 4. Oyster species and production quantities globally (note: C. gigas data are outside of the scale of this graph). Percentages are given as fraction of total oyster aquaculture production in 2003. Source: FAO 2005. According to the UN FAO, 46 countries produced oysters in 2003. Table 1 shows some of the producing countries and their respective oyster species.

Figure 5. Oyster aquaculture production trends of selected countries. Source: FAO 2005 Final report: Evaluation of production technology, product quality and market potential for the development of biva mollusc aquaculture in the Philippines

Pens and cages for fish culture are also utilized for oyster and mussel attachment. Mussels and oysters attach to the bamboos of the pen and sometimes to the nets surrounding the pen. They also attach to the floating buoys (drums) of the cages and th mooring system of the cages. The methods of oyster and mussel culture in Anda do not differ much from that of Bolinao. Most respondents use stake method and hanging rack method for the culture of oysters and mussels.

Final report: Evaluation of production technology, product quality and market potential for the development of bival mollusc aquaculture in the Philippines Most respondents in Malolos use the rack method or bottom (or broadcast) method for growing oysters. In the rack method, bamboos with average length of 8.2 m (range 3.7 to 12.8 m) are used as vertical post and arranged in rows. For economic reasons, aside from using bamboos, some respondents opt to use ropes (nylon #8 and #5) as horizontal bars. The choice substrate is then tied to these horizontal bars. The substrate is either empty oyster shells tied in strings; old motorcycle tires; or a combination of both.

In Bacoor, Cavite, stake method is commonly used. Spats are obtained in situ when this method is used. Bamboos, with length average of 10 m (range of 7.3-12.8 m), are staked into the muddy substrate and used as cultch material. Area covered for this set-up ranged from 15 sq m up to 2 hectares. While the number of bamboo poles staked in one area is not a concern, in general the intervals between posts would usually range from 0.3 — 1 m. Some operators add 2 bamboo poles for every vertical post, placed at an angle and tied with nylon rope, to increase stability of poles. These additional poles also increase surface area for spat attachment.

The culture methods in Batan, Aklan are stake, rack and raft. Some farmers also culture oyster in their fish traps because oyster culture is not permitted in some areas of Batan. Strings with empty shells and old rubber tires are hung at the sides of the fish trap. Final report: Evaluation of production technology, product quality and market potential for the development of bival mollusc aquaculture in the Philippines

In Roxas City, broadcast, rack, raft and stake methods are commonly used. The farmers broadcast oyster and mussel collected from thinning the stakes, rack or raft. The area for broadcasting is usually near their stake, rack or raft set up. The raft method in Roxas City is with or without hangings. In raft without hangings, oyster and mussel attached directly to the raft while in raft with hangings, old rubber tires, whole or cut in half, are used as substrate. The most common method is the stake method wherein bamboo (5.5- 12.8 m) is the only substrate used where organisms are left to grow for almost a year. Most farmers have 1-2 rows of stakes only but others put up to 10-30 rows. This depends on the size of the area. In the rack method, the farmers place bamboos as horizontal bars where strings with empty shells are hung. Other farmers use old rubber tires as substrates in the rack method. The distance between substrate is 0.5 meters.

bamboos ranged from 5-10 meters. Most culture sites in Roxas are situated near river banks. The stake method in this area uses a 1-2 meter long bamboo as substrate spaced at 1-3 meters apart. Usually oysters or mussels collected from thinning are broadcasted within or near the farm area.

Final report: Evaluation of production technology, product quality and market potential for the development of bival mollusc aquaculture in the Philippines In Himamaylan, the farmers use bottom, rack and raft method. Rack method uses empty shells and old nets as substrates. Old nets (0.9 m long) are hung in horizontal bars approximately 15 meters long and are spaced at 6 inches apart. Some rack set-ups are situated near fish cages and fish pens.

Raft method with hangings use plastic strap as substrate. Other farmers do not place plastic strap in their raft. The organism just attaches to a 12-meter long bamboo directly. Oysters are usually cultured in raft with hangings and mussels are usually cultured in raft without hangings. When farmers do thinning, thinned oyster and mussel are broadcasted to areas near their set ups.

11.7 Appendix 7: Summary of Oyster and Mussel Culture Methods per Municipality

Global aquaculture production has been growing rapidly for more than 40 years (UN, 2007). Declines in wild harvest fisheries and exponential global population growth have driven the demand and the development of these new aquatic industries and their Map showing Australian States and Territories and Tropic of Capricorn

Figure 2, Queensland Edible Oyster Production Value 1997 to 2007

Final report: Evaluation of production technology, product quality and market potential for the development of biva mollusc aquaculture in the Philippines

igure 4, Comparison of NSW aquaculture production value 2005 to 2006. The value of the total annual oyster production between 2005/06 totalled AU$35.98m which represents 74.9% of the total aquaculture production for the state of New Sout Wales (Figure 4).

Figure 5, Species composition of NSW oyster production 2005/2006

Figure 7, Average price per dozen Sydney rock oysters 2005/2006. Pacific Oysters

Figure 8, Average price per dozen Pacific oysters by marketing grade in 2005/2006. ae inal report: Evaluation of production technology, product quality and market potential for the development of biva nollusc aquaculture in the Philippines Table 1, NSW oyster industry production methods glossary

Figure 9, Sydney rock oyster sales by method 2005/2006.

PIgure LY, Fan UYoter odlito VY MICUIUU 2UU0/ 2UU0 The NSW DPI managed Port Stephens Fisheries Centre and the Port Stephens Researct Centre provided the figures in the above table and Figure relating to Pacific Oyster production by cultivation method, and may reflect the outcomes of research goals and commercial production. Table 3, Pacific Oyster sales by method 2005/2006.

Table 4, Spat Collection and Production Value.

Between 2002 and 2007 blue mussel production value ranged between AU$1,865,000 and AU$4,092,000 per annum. Victorian mussel production is shown in Figures 12a and b, and indicates a peak in 2002/03, followed by an increase in 2004/05 and declining slightly over the following two years. The total value of mussel aquaculture has shown a similar trend (include some actual values), although prices rose slightly in 2006/07. This increase was attributed to the drought affecting the quality and volume of freshwater species which comprise 66% of the industry.

Oyster production is included in the combined ‘Other Mollusc’ category in aquaculture production figures for the state of Victoria, reflecting its relativeley low production contribution. The combined ‘other mollusc’ category produced 4 tonnes in 2005/2006 ata total value of $19,000 representing 0.02% of the total aquaculture production. Due to the colder water the main species of edible oyster produced in Victoria is Ostrea angasi (the Native Flat Oyster), although in very limited numbers (Department of Primary Industries 2008b)(Table 6).

Figures 12a and b, Victorian Blue Mussel production volume and value 2003/2007. The peak production in 2002/2003 of 1600 tonnes produced AU$3.7m. Figures 12a and b, Victorian Blue Mussel production volume and value 2003/2007. -inal report: Evaluation of production technology, product quality and market potential for the development of biva nollusc aquaculture in the Philippines It has been suggested that the reliance on wild spawning and collection for spat supply limits the growth of the industry. As such the Victorian DPI, based at the Queenscliff Fisheries Centre, has established a joint research project to enhance the industry’s sustainability through hatchery-spat production and product marketing.

Figure 13, Victorian Blue Mussel Price per Kilogram 2002 - 2007.

During the 2002 - 2007 period, bivalve aquaculture licences increased from 28 to 47. The industry directly employs 100 fulltime staff who service a production area of over 400ha. Figure 14, Changes in Victorian Bivalve Aquaculture Licences 2002-2007. Cultivation Methods

Figure 15, Tasmanian Oyster Production Value 1997/2007, Tasmanian Oyster Market Share 2007. Between 1997-2007 pacific oyster production increased in value by 63% from AU$9.6m t AU$16.7m, although this increase was not linear and for the first five years growth was only 2%pa (Figure 15). Overshadowed by the growth of Salmonid aquaculture, Pacific oysters represent 5.3% of the AU$295.2m annual Tasmanian aquaculture production value (ABARE 2008; Department of Primary Industries, Water and Environment 2004).

Figure 16, Tasmanian Blue Mussel Production Value 1997/2007, Tasmanian Blue Mussel Market Share 2007.

In 2007 oysters constituted a market share of 8.87% of South Australia’s total aquaculture production value. Figure 17, South Australian Oyster Production Value 1999/2007, Oyster Market Share of total aquaculture in 2007.

In the period between 1999 and 2007, mussel production increased by 1275% from 81t to 1032t. The total annual production value during this period increased from $0.2m to $1.9m.

Figure 18, South Australian Blue Mussel Production Value 1999/2007, Blue Mussel Market Share 2007. Final report: Evaluation of production technology, product quality and market potential for the development of bival mollusc aquaculture in the Philippines South Australian Mussel Production Value 2007

Wallis Lake is between Forster and Tuncurry on the coast of Northern New South Wales. The region is picturesque with beautiful natural features including temperate rainforests and sandy beaches. The western side of the lake is backed by extensive forested hinterland, comprising of State Forest and National Parks, while the eastern side of the lake is bordered by the Pacific Ocean. The “Lake” is actually an estuary which receives both fresh and marine inflows of water. The area has a rich cultural history with development dating as far back as convict settlement in the late 18th and early 19th centuries.

Figure 19, Comparison of Australian edible oyster aquaculture production value in 2007 by state. Edible oysters comprise C. gigas, S. commercialis, O. angasi. 11.8.2 Summary

Figure <u, AqUuacultured auStrallan eaibie oyster Market Share Dy State 2UU/. In 2007 the value of Australian aquacultured edible oysters sold both domestically and internationally totalled AU$90.57. With large coastlines and many available growing areas both New South Wales and South Australia have provided the majority of edible oysters for the Australian market. South Australia achieved the greatest volume due to the states low population density and annual rainfall, while New South Wales increased production through the utilisation of new growing areas in the Wallis Lake and Hunter Valley regions.

In 2007 the value of the Blue Mussel industry reached AU$8.6m. Due to the temperature tolerance of Blue Mussels the southern states of Australia were the highest producers. Although Tasmania is the smallest state of Australia it has a proactive aquaculture strategy combined with a suitable climate for Blue Mussel production. A trend in the southern states toward the use of hatchery-cultured spat ropes is enabling industry growth and providing consistent volumes within the marketplace.

Figure 23, Comparison of Australian Pearl Production Value 2007. Pearl Production Value

a gee ee a ee a ee Data for Northern Territory includes aquarium production of finfish and therefore the figures in these graphs are not solely related to pearl production. Through the use of quotas, Western Australia has consistently produced AU$122m of products annually for the past three years. Production practices have been refined and hatcheries enable marketable pearls from each oyster once every two years. Pearls produced in the warm waters of northern Australia are of high quality, the industry supplies domestic and international markets and with an expected increase in the Northern Territory and Queensland the industry is expected to strengthen in years to come. All pearls are produced in individual baskets or net panels attached to suspended lines; this method is simple yet proven to be the most effective cultivation method. -inal report: Evaluation of production technology, product quality and market potential for the development of bival nollusc aquaculture in the Philippines

Figure 1. (Top) Schematic diagram depicting the progress of a potential industry without research support. (Bottom) Desired or projected development of the same industry with research support until it matures and stabilizes into a fully-developed industry (shaded).

Malolos

Roxas

11.12Appendix 12: Market Flow

Municipality: ANDA