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Representative hydrogels used for the controlled release of phosphate fertilizer. 4.2 Effects of hydrogel amendment Smart hydrogel amendment in the soil during cultivation process will alter the hydraulic conductivity and pore size of soil to some extent due to water absorption [85, 86]. However, it will improve residual and saturated water content, which results in the reduction of subsequent water loss and infiltration due to percolation, this will facilitate aeration in soil due to expansion and contraction of hydrogel through absorption and evaporation [85]. The suitability of hydrogel for semi-arid and arid regions was due to the release of water and fertilizers with reference to environmental temperature, which results in increased survival [85] of plants. Besides, the hydrogel amendment has reduced the uptake of toxic metals and soil salinity by plants [87, 88].

Table 4 Representative hydrogels used for the controlled release of phosphate fertilizer. 4.2 Effects of hydrogel amendment Smart hydrogel amendment in the soil during cultivation process will alter the hydraulic conductivity and pore size of soil to some extent due to water absorption [85, 86]. However, it will improve residual and saturated water content, which results in the reduction of subsequent water loss and infiltration due to percolation, this will facilitate aeration in soil due to expansion and contraction of hydrogel through absorption and evaporation [85]. The suitability of hydrogel for semi-arid and arid regions was due to the release of water and fertilizers with reference to environmental temperature, which results in increased survival [85] of plants. Besides, the hydrogel amendment has reduced the uptake of toxic metals and soil salinity by plants [87, 88].

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Smart Polymer Hydrogels as Matrices for the Controlled Release Applications... DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.102904 Table 1. Typical 1 monomers used for hydrogel synthesis.
Smart Polymer Hydrogels as Matrices for the Controlled Release Applications... DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.102904 Table 1. Typical 1 monomers used for hydrogel synthesis.
Hydrogels - From Tradition to Innovative Platforms with Multiple Applications interaction with biological fluids, environmental sensitivity, dielectric properties, toxicity, the toxicity of the degraded products, etc. For instance, the nature of func- tional groups, crystallization deformation of polymers, biodegradation, moisture uptake properties, nature of interactions between components are evaluated using Fourier Transform Infrared Analysis (FTIR) and Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. The modification after polymerization such as chemical composition, grain size, the extent of crosslinking, pore size, pore volume are evaluated using Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) or Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and X-ray diffraction analysis. The oxidative thermal degradation, glass transition temperature, lifetime prediction, melting point, etc. are assessed through Thermal Analysis (TGA and DSC). The mechanical characteristics such as tensile strength and elastic moduli and strain are evaluated using a tensile-compressive tester.
Hydrogels - From Tradition to Innovative Platforms with Multiple Applications interaction with biological fluids, environmental sensitivity, dielectric properties, toxicity, the toxicity of the degraded products, etc. For instance, the nature of func- tional groups, crystallization deformation of polymers, biodegradation, moisture uptake properties, nature of interactions between components are evaluated using Fourier Transform Infrared Analysis (FTIR) and Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. The modification after polymerization such as chemical composition, grain size, the extent of crosslinking, pore size, pore volume are evaluated using Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) or Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and X-ray diffraction analysis. The oxidative thermal degradation, glass transition temperature, lifetime prediction, melting point, etc. are assessed through Thermal Analysis (TGA and DSC). The mechanical characteristics such as tensile strength and elastic moduli and strain are evaluated using a tensile-compressive tester.
Table 3. Smart Polymer Hydrogels as Matrices for the Controlled Release Applications... DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.102904
Table 3. Smart Polymer Hydrogels as Matrices for the Controlled Release Applications... DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.102904
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~— re a © pies Advantages of hydrogel in field. Hydrogels - From Tradition to Innovative Platforms with Multiple Applications The use of smart hydrogels in agricultural sector have attracted great attention as water management material in soil and matrices for the controlled release of primary and secondary fertilizers. The release rates of hydrogels [23, 27] are depends on the functional groups that are present in the polymer, functionality of crosslinker, pH, temperature, ionic strength of the medium, etc. Besides, the incorporation of natural pre-polymers in synthetic polymer hydrogel will bring down the operation cost, since they are readily available at a low cost and highly biodegradable. Nevertheless, natural polymer incorpo- ration may induce a few limitations such as the lack of solubility of monomers in aqueous
Representative Hydrogel used for the controlled release of nitrogen fertilizer. Hydrogels - From Tradition to Innovative Platforms with Multiple Applications
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Table 6. Typical hydrogels used as matrices for the controlled release of potassium.
Table 6. Typical hydrogels used as matrices for the controlled release of potassium.
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