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Table 4. Experimental factors and their levels [78]. The authors observed that (i) depth of cut had a more prominent impact on surface roughness with 34.63% contribution, followed by the viscosity of cutting fluid (33.10%) and spindle speed (24.77%); (ii) viscosity of cutting liquid has the most critical impact on chip compression ratio with a contribution of 59.13%, followed by feed rate and depth of cut with contributions of 29.69% and 15.99%, respectively; (iii) the general performance of the cutting oils in decreasing the chip compression ratio and improving the surface roughness was better when sunflower oil as opposed to palm or coconut oil was applied.

Table 4 Experimental factors and their levels [78]. The authors observed that (i) depth of cut had a more prominent impact on surface roughness with 34.63% contribution, followed by the viscosity of cutting fluid (33.10%) and spindle speed (24.77%); (ii) viscosity of cutting liquid has the most critical impact on chip compression ratio with a contribution of 59.13%, followed by feed rate and depth of cut with contributions of 29.69% and 15.99%, respectively; (iii) the general performance of the cutting oils in decreasing the chip compression ratio and improving the surface roughness was better when sunflower oil as opposed to palm or coconut oil was applied.

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Figure 1. Schematic diagram of the heat generation region during an orthogonal cutting operation.
Figure 1. Schematic diagram of the heat generation region during an orthogonal cutting operation.
Table 1. Comparison of base oil properties.
Table 1. Comparison of base oil properties.
good cooling and lubrication results. The basic physicochemical qualities, cost, availabil ity, and applications of some selected vegetable oils as reported by Sankaranarayanar and Krolczyk [66] is depicted in Table 2. Vegetable oil has a high flash point, which is a requirement for use in machining activities. Vegetable oils have a greater flash point making them easier to use in harsh machining applications where high temperatures are involved. It also decreases the risk of smoke and fire. Higher flashpoints of vegetable oils provide further benefits for these eco-friendly coolants when replacing traditiona! cutting fluid, significantly reducing smoke and fire safety issues. Vegetable oils’ high viscosity index enables consistent lubrication, implying that the rate of viscosity reductior is lower than in the case of temperature build-up. For cooling and lubrication, the density of eco-friendly cutting fluids is equivalent to that of synthetic and mineral coolants. In most circumstances, however, the kinematic viscosity values of chemically synthesized cutting fluids are highly comparable. Vegetable oils have sufficient kinematic viscosity to provide optimum lubrication without neglecting cooling properties. Vegetable oils’ physical anc chemical qualities are proving to be adequate for use as cutting fluids. Table 2 also shows he market pricing of various vegetable oils employed in machining operations. Vegetable oil prices range from USD 1178.75 to 4441.54 per metric ton. Of all the prices presented palm oil is the cheapest. The expenditure incurred on metal cutting fluids varies betweer 6 and 30%, emphasizing the significance of cutting fluids on both economic and technica evels. These expenditures span the entire life cycle of the product, from procurement tc disposal. Considering their high purchasing cost, vegetable oils outperform mineral oils in this circumstance. Considering the costs of maintenance, recycling, and disposal, as well as the severe environmental requirements, investing in vegetable oils will yield only profitable outcomes. Furthermore, large-scale planting of vegetable-oil-based plants, trees or crops would minimize long-term purchase price. When vegetable oils are improperly extracted, handled, and stored, they can become rancid, losing antioxidant properties and quality [67]. Moisture, microorganisms, air, antioxidants, and sunshine exposure are al. elements that influence the oil’s rancidity or deterioration time [68]. Figure 2. The structure of a vegetable oil molecule [52-54].
good cooling and lubrication results. The basic physicochemical qualities, cost, availabil ity, and applications of some selected vegetable oils as reported by Sankaranarayanar and Krolczyk [66] is depicted in Table 2. Vegetable oil has a high flash point, which is a requirement for use in machining activities. Vegetable oils have a greater flash point making them easier to use in harsh machining applications where high temperatures are involved. It also decreases the risk of smoke and fire. Higher flashpoints of vegetable oils provide further benefits for these eco-friendly coolants when replacing traditiona! cutting fluid, significantly reducing smoke and fire safety issues. Vegetable oils’ high viscosity index enables consistent lubrication, implying that the rate of viscosity reductior is lower than in the case of temperature build-up. For cooling and lubrication, the density of eco-friendly cutting fluids is equivalent to that of synthetic and mineral coolants. In most circumstances, however, the kinematic viscosity values of chemically synthesized cutting fluids are highly comparable. Vegetable oils have sufficient kinematic viscosity to provide optimum lubrication without neglecting cooling properties. Vegetable oils’ physical anc chemical qualities are proving to be adequate for use as cutting fluids. Table 2 also shows he market pricing of various vegetable oils employed in machining operations. Vegetable oil prices range from USD 1178.75 to 4441.54 per metric ton. Of all the prices presented palm oil is the cheapest. The expenditure incurred on metal cutting fluids varies betweer 6 and 30%, emphasizing the significance of cutting fluids on both economic and technica evels. These expenditures span the entire life cycle of the product, from procurement tc disposal. Considering their high purchasing cost, vegetable oils outperform mineral oils in this circumstance. Considering the costs of maintenance, recycling, and disposal, as well as the severe environmental requirements, investing in vegetable oils will yield only profitable outcomes. Furthermore, large-scale planting of vegetable-oil-based plants, trees or crops would minimize long-term purchase price. When vegetable oils are improperly extracted, handled, and stored, they can become rancid, losing antioxidant properties and quality [67]. Moisture, microorganisms, air, antioxidants, and sunshine exposure are al. elements that influence the oil’s rancidity or deterioration time [68]. Figure 2. The structure of a vegetable oil molecule [52-54].
Table 2. Basic physicochemical qualities, cost, availability, and applications of selected cutting fluids as reported by Sankaranarayanan and Krolczyk [66].
Table 2. Basic physicochemical qualities, cost, availability, and applications of selected cutting fluids as reported by Sankaranarayanan and Krolczyk [66].
Table 3. Optimal control factor settings and the corresponding optimal values of surface roughness and surface hardness [76]. Diminished surface roughness was accounted for with MQL when contrasted with dry and flood cooling. The better performance of MOL was ascribed to its cooling action, which was more effective due to the convective and evaporative mode of heat transfer. Additionally, surface hardness is greater in dry lubrication because of the large measure of heat generated when contrasted with MQL and flood cooling.
Table 3. Optimal control factor settings and the corresponding optimal values of surface roughness and surface hardness [76]. Diminished surface roughness was accounted for with MQL when contrasted with dry and flood cooling. The better performance of MOL was ascribed to its cooling action, which was more effective due to the convective and evaporative mode of heat transfer. Additionally, surface hardness is greater in dry lubrication because of the large measure of heat generated when contrasted with MQL and flood cooling.
Table 5. Chip compression ratio as a function of the cutting speed and lubricating cooling condition [80] Khan et al. [81] employed an MQL metal-cutting strategy in turning AISI 9310 stee with non-coated tool material while contrasting with flood cooling and dry conditions with respect to chip tool boundary temperature, chip forming mode, surface roughness, and too wear. MQL was supplied with a mist of food-grade vegetable oil and air at a flow rate of 100 mL/h and air pressure of 6 bar while flooding was operated at 6 L/min and 0.5 bar using Eco cut San 220 coolant. Lower surface roughness decreased cutting temperature and better chip formation was reported for with MQL when contrasted with dry and flood cooling. The chips formed with MOL using vegetable oil were constantly observed to be better than flood and dry cutting at any chosen feed rate. The desired continuous chips with MQL application were due to the drop in temperature, the existence of an enabled chip-tool interface and the removal of even traces of built-up edge formation. The pattern and level of wear formed at different tool-tip surfaces after being used for a moderately long period under SEM were likewise observed to see the impacts of various conditions on the wear of the SNMG-type carbide insert. Abrasive scratch marks appeared in the flanks under all the environments (see Figure 3). The insert contained several indicators of adhesive wear. Under dry and wet conditions, severe groove wear on the flank surfaces was found in the insert. Under dry machining, plastic distortion and micro-chipping were found to have occurred. Effective temperature control with MQL through vegetable oil almost decreased groove wear development at the main cutting edge just as well as the auxiliary cutting edges. Moreover, the image clearly demonstrates diminished average wear on the primary flank and average wear on the auxiliary flank under MQL by the vegetable oil condition.
Table 5. Chip compression ratio as a function of the cutting speed and lubricating cooling condition [80] Khan et al. [81] employed an MQL metal-cutting strategy in turning AISI 9310 stee with non-coated tool material while contrasting with flood cooling and dry conditions with respect to chip tool boundary temperature, chip forming mode, surface roughness, and too wear. MQL was supplied with a mist of food-grade vegetable oil and air at a flow rate of 100 mL/h and air pressure of 6 bar while flooding was operated at 6 L/min and 0.5 bar using Eco cut San 220 coolant. Lower surface roughness decreased cutting temperature and better chip formation was reported for with MQL when contrasted with dry and flood cooling. The chips formed with MOL using vegetable oil were constantly observed to be better than flood and dry cutting at any chosen feed rate. The desired continuous chips with MQL application were due to the drop in temperature, the existence of an enabled chip-tool interface and the removal of even traces of built-up edge formation. The pattern and level of wear formed at different tool-tip surfaces after being used for a moderately long period under SEM were likewise observed to see the impacts of various conditions on the wear of the SNMG-type carbide insert. Abrasive scratch marks appeared in the flanks under all the environments (see Figure 3). The insert contained several indicators of adhesive wear. Under dry and wet conditions, severe groove wear on the flank surfaces was found in the insert. Under dry machining, plastic distortion and micro-chipping were found to have occurred. Effective temperature control with MQL through vegetable oil almost decreased groove wear development at the main cutting edge just as well as the auxiliary cutting edges. Moreover, the image clearly demonstrates diminished average wear on the primary flank and average wear on the auxiliary flank under MQL by the vegetable oil condition.
Figure 3. SEM views of principal flank wear of the worn-out insert after machining 43 min under dry, wet, and MQL conditions [81], License Number: 5287320091190. the performance varied slightly, and the effectiveness of neem oil was better than that of karanja oil between the two types of vegetable oil.
Figure 3. SEM views of principal flank wear of the worn-out insert after machining 43 min under dry, wet, and MQL conditions [81], License Number: 5287320091190. the performance varied slightly, and the effectiveness of neem oil was better than that of karanja oil between the two types of vegetable oil.
Furthermore, the amplitude in the force variation of the cutting part, as well as the segment and chip-forming action, was subject to adhesive measures on the flank. The result of pure oil machining is generally critical at low feed rate values and has almost nc adverse effect on other cutting environments in contrast to dry conditions. This results in z somewhat more effective impact of oil as a cooling medium and, to a lesser degree, as ar oil. The addition of GnPs has had a far greater influence on the outcome within the regior of cutting speeds of 40-50 m/min within the ranges of all feed rates. The comparative findings for the f = 0.08 mm/rev feed may have been due to the prevalence of a tool-edge radius and size of chamfer of approximately 0.1 mm. Speed increase prevents graphite nanomaterials from entering the cutting region. The influence of graphite on top speeds (60 m/min), as shown by Figure 4, was evident on the force disparity intensity in the direction of the feed owing to the partly open radial portion of the tool nose, which is accessible for lubrication. Diffusion and abrasion are the key wear mechanisms found in conjunction with notch forming, chipping of cutting edge, adhesion, and rake flaking They found that the development of grooves is common for the initial formation of flank wearing. The GnP particles in cutting oil hinder or restrict the production of flank wea1 GnP additives of 0.2% (vol.) to vegetable oil will substantially boost the process efficiency of the workpiece in terms of tool life, process stability, and surface finish. Figure 4. Average values of cutting force variation at different cooling conditions: (a) ve = 40 m/min (b) v¢ = 50 m/min; (c) ve = 60 m/min [85], License Number: 5287320340171.
Furthermore, the amplitude in the force variation of the cutting part, as well as the segment and chip-forming action, was subject to adhesive measures on the flank. The result of pure oil machining is generally critical at low feed rate values and has almost nc adverse effect on other cutting environments in contrast to dry conditions. This results in z somewhat more effective impact of oil as a cooling medium and, to a lesser degree, as ar oil. The addition of GnPs has had a far greater influence on the outcome within the regior of cutting speeds of 40-50 m/min within the ranges of all feed rates. The comparative findings for the f = 0.08 mm/rev feed may have been due to the prevalence of a tool-edge radius and size of chamfer of approximately 0.1 mm. Speed increase prevents graphite nanomaterials from entering the cutting region. The influence of graphite on top speeds (60 m/min), as shown by Figure 4, was evident on the force disparity intensity in the direction of the feed owing to the partly open radial portion of the tool nose, which is accessible for lubrication. Diffusion and abrasion are the key wear mechanisms found in conjunction with notch forming, chipping of cutting edge, adhesion, and rake flaking They found that the development of grooves is common for the initial formation of flank wearing. The GnP particles in cutting oil hinder or restrict the production of flank wea1 GnP additives of 0.2% (vol.) to vegetable oil will substantially boost the process efficiency of the workpiece in terms of tool life, process stability, and surface finish. Figure 4. Average values of cutting force variation at different cooling conditions: (a) ve = 40 m/min (b) v¢ = 50 m/min; (c) ve = 60 m/min [85], License Number: 5287320340171.
Figure 5. Results of force components at the machining region adapted from [87], License Number: 5287300872221.
Figure 5. Results of force components at the machining region adapted from [87], License Number: 5287300872221.
Figure 6. Arithmetic average of surface roughness profile on machined surfaces lubricated with all lubricant samples [87].
Figure 6. Arithmetic average of surface roughness profile on machined surfaces lubricated with all lubricant samples [87].
Figure 7. Typical tool failure modes under MQL turning lubricated with all lubricant samples. The allowable tool wear mode according to ISO-3685 standards is shown with notch wear dominating most of the measured tool life [87]. Figure 7. Typical tool failure modes under MQL turning lubricated with all lubricant samples. The
Figure 7. Typical tool failure modes under MQL turning lubricated with all lubricant samples. The allowable tool wear mode according to ISO-3685 standards is shown with notch wear dominating most of the measured tool life [87]. Figure 7. Typical tool failure modes under MQL turning lubricated with all lubricant samples. The
Table 6. Cutting parameters and machining conditions [89].
Table 6. Cutting parameters and machining conditions [89].
was caused by an abrasion between the workpiece and the tool. In the case of mineral oil, erosion or peeling away from the carbide insert was observed in Figure 8c. The processes of chemical modification greatly improve the polarity of vegetable oils. In both Pongamia and Jatropha molecules, the bonds between ester chains became stronger, thereby increasing metal adsorption. As a result of the polar shape of the oil extracts, tool wear was reduced in versions modified with vegetable oils by producing a protective shield on the contact area that decreased friction and wear. For modified Pongamia oil, a good surface finish was reported with low-speed cutting fluid and for modified Jatropha oil with high-speed cutting fluid. Figure 8. SEM images for flank wear for different oil conditions: (a) Jatropha, (b) Pongamia (c) mineral oil [93].
was caused by an abrasion between the workpiece and the tool. In the case of mineral oil, erosion or peeling away from the carbide insert was observed in Figure 8c. The processes of chemical modification greatly improve the polarity of vegetable oils. In both Pongamia and Jatropha molecules, the bonds between ester chains became stronger, thereby increasing metal adsorption. As a result of the polar shape of the oil extracts, tool wear was reduced in versions modified with vegetable oils by producing a protective shield on the contact area that decreased friction and wear. For modified Pongamia oil, a good surface finish was reported with low-speed cutting fluid and for modified Jatropha oil with high-speed cutting fluid. Figure 8. SEM images for flank wear for different oil conditions: (a) Jatropha, (b) Pongamia (c) mineral oil [93].
Ghatge et al. oils) and minera in turning opera designed using three main levels. Cutting speed (200, 150, 100 m/min), feed rate (0.3, 0.2, 0.1 mm/rev), DOC (1.2, 0.8, 0.4 mm), and cutting fluids (coconut, neem and mineral) were the process parameters used evaluated throug nanoemulsions were formulated by blending every vegetable oil with water, base oil, and [94] studied the impacts of nano mixtures of plant oils (neem and coconut oil as coolants in enhancing the processability of duplex stainless stee tion with covered carbide inserts (TiIN-Al.O03-TICN-TiN). Studies were the orthogonal array of Taguchi’s Ly7 by adjusting four parameters at . Cutting force, wear of the tool, and surface roughness were tested and h the main effects plot for optimal operational parameters. Eco-sustainable non-ionic Tween80 (HLB-15) surfactant. The authors stated that the optimal tool wear, surface roughness, and tool temperature values were, for neem oil, 0.4 mm, 0.3 mm/rev, and 100 m/min, and for coconut oil, 0.8 mm, 0.1 mm/rev, and 100 m/min, respectively. The experimental outcome showed abrasive wear in the worn structure. This abrasive wear was on the tool flank while machining surface, thereby causing flank wear. The images of tool wear generated are shown in Figure 9. The two images displayed are for machining levels (7 and 25, respectively). Figure 9. Tool wear pattern at (a) Level 7 and (b) Level 25 [94], License Number: 5287311337135
Ghatge et al. oils) and minera in turning opera designed using three main levels. Cutting speed (200, 150, 100 m/min), feed rate (0.3, 0.2, 0.1 mm/rev), DOC (1.2, 0.8, 0.4 mm), and cutting fluids (coconut, neem and mineral) were the process parameters used evaluated throug nanoemulsions were formulated by blending every vegetable oil with water, base oil, and [94] studied the impacts of nano mixtures of plant oils (neem and coconut oil as coolants in enhancing the processability of duplex stainless stee tion with covered carbide inserts (TiIN-Al.O03-TICN-TiN). Studies were the orthogonal array of Taguchi’s Ly7 by adjusting four parameters at . Cutting force, wear of the tool, and surface roughness were tested and h the main effects plot for optimal operational parameters. Eco-sustainable non-ionic Tween80 (HLB-15) surfactant. The authors stated that the optimal tool wear, surface roughness, and tool temperature values were, for neem oil, 0.4 mm, 0.3 mm/rev, and 100 m/min, and for coconut oil, 0.8 mm, 0.1 mm/rev, and 100 m/min, respectively. The experimental outcome showed abrasive wear in the worn structure. This abrasive wear was on the tool flank while machining surface, thereby causing flank wear. The images of tool wear generated are shown in Figure 9. The two images displayed are for machining levels (7 and 25, respectively). Figure 9. Tool wear pattern at (a) Level 7 and (b) Level 25 [94], License Number: 5287311337135
~*~ Deiab e al. [95] worked on tool wear, cutting energy, and surface roughness in titaniur alloy turning with different coolant environments. The results were compared under the following conditions: dry, flood cooling with synthetic emulsion, MOL with rapeseed vegetable oi liquid nitrogen. Figures 10-12 show the average performance of the lubrication strategies The interventions of vegetable oil MQCL and MQL provided good outcomes in terms o surface roug Sustainable effects such as improved surface quality, reduced energy usage, and less too wear resulted due to the effective supply of coolant and strong lubricity in these techniques MQCL (rapeseed oil and cooled air) is extremely encouraging, particularly at lower speeds and feeds, thereby indicating that the use of vegetable oil in machining is a safe method , MQCL (rapeseed oil and cooled air), cooled air, and cryogenic cooling witt hness and tool wear and often improved in terms of minimizing energy usage compared to others. The authors concluded that MOCL with vegetable oil provided the best potential in terms of flank wear at low speed and low feed. Vegetable oil (MOQCL) has emerged as a viable option together with cryogenic machining. Figure 10. Tool wear with lubrication techniques [95], License Number: 5287311103641.
~*~ Deiab e al. [95] worked on tool wear, cutting energy, and surface roughness in titaniur alloy turning with different coolant environments. The results were compared under the following conditions: dry, flood cooling with synthetic emulsion, MOL with rapeseed vegetable oi liquid nitrogen. Figures 10-12 show the average performance of the lubrication strategies The interventions of vegetable oil MQCL and MQL provided good outcomes in terms o surface roug Sustainable effects such as improved surface quality, reduced energy usage, and less too wear resulted due to the effective supply of coolant and strong lubricity in these techniques MQCL (rapeseed oil and cooled air) is extremely encouraging, particularly at lower speeds and feeds, thereby indicating that the use of vegetable oil in machining is a safe method , MQCL (rapeseed oil and cooled air), cooled air, and cryogenic cooling witt hness and tool wear and often improved in terms of minimizing energy usage compared to others. The authors concluded that MOCL with vegetable oil provided the best potential in terms of flank wear at low speed and low feed. Vegetable oil (MOQCL) has emerged as a viable option together with cryogenic machining. Figure 10. Tool wear with lubrication techniques [95], License Number: 5287311103641.
Figure 11. Surface roughness with lubrication techniques [95], License Number: 5287311103641
Figure 11. Surface roughness with lubrication techniques [95], License Number: 5287311103641
Figure 12. Cutting energy consumption with lubrication techniques [95], License Number: 5287311103641.
Figure 12. Cutting energy consumption with lubrication techniques [95], License Number: 5287311103641.
Figure 13. Variation of cutting force with (a) feed and (b) cutting speed for FC and MQCF [102], License Number: 5287301340048. Gajrani et al. [102] discussed the significance and sustainable prospects of bio-cutting fluids (BCFs) and commonly available mineral oils (MOs) in hard material cutting o! AISI H-13 steel. The impact of minimum quantity cutting lubrication (MQCL) and flood cooling (FC) strategies on the feed force, machined part surface roughness, coefficient of friction, and cutting forces was examined during the metal cutting with speed-feec variations. Each of the cutting fluids was examined individually under FO and MQCL. The difference of cutting force against cutting speed and feed for MQCF and FC in Figure 1° indicates that feed rate had a substantial influence on machining force. The angle of shea was reduced as feed increased and the thickness of the chip increased. Increased chit thickness increased the chip load and friction on the tool rake face. Thus, the force increases with feed (see Figure 13a). The tool-work component interaction time during cutting decreased with increasing cutting speed, but the MRR increased. Thus, heat increases ir both primary and secondary shear areas. The possibility of preheating adjacent to the cutting area increased due to the enhanced temperature conductivity of AISI H-13 steel Thus, workpiece surface thermal softening develops. Increasing heat in the secondary shear area caused stress distribution to reduce in the machined surface, thus decreasing cutting force with increasing cutting speed (see Figure 13b).
Figure 13. Variation of cutting force with (a) feed and (b) cutting speed for FC and MQCF [102], License Number: 5287301340048. Gajrani et al. [102] discussed the significance and sustainable prospects of bio-cutting fluids (BCFs) and commonly available mineral oils (MOs) in hard material cutting o! AISI H-13 steel. The impact of minimum quantity cutting lubrication (MQCL) and flood cooling (FC) strategies on the feed force, machined part surface roughness, coefficient of friction, and cutting forces was examined during the metal cutting with speed-feec variations. Each of the cutting fluids was examined individually under FO and MQCL. The difference of cutting force against cutting speed and feed for MQCF and FC in Figure 1° indicates that feed rate had a substantial influence on machining force. The angle of shea was reduced as feed increased and the thickness of the chip increased. Increased chit thickness increased the chip load and friction on the tool rake face. Thus, the force increases with feed (see Figure 13a). The tool-work component interaction time during cutting decreased with increasing cutting speed, but the MRR increased. Thus, heat increases ir both primary and secondary shear areas. The possibility of preheating adjacent to the cutting area increased due to the enhanced temperature conductivity of AISI H-13 steel Thus, workpiece surface thermal softening develops. Increasing heat in the secondary shear area caused stress distribution to reduce in the machined surface, thus decreasing cutting force with increasing cutting speed (see Figure 13b).
roughness, and feed force were diminished with MQCF (for both cutting liquids) compared with FC. Because of its better lubrication and cooling properties, BCF produced preferred outcomes over MO. The authors concluded that BCF emulsion performed better than MO regarding its high specific heat, higher temperature conductivity, and better capacity to infiltrate the tool-chip boundary. Figure 14. Variations in feed force with (a) feed and (b) cutting speed under FC and MQCF [102], License Number: 5287301340048.
roughness, and feed force were diminished with MQCF (for both cutting liquids) compared with FC. Because of its better lubrication and cooling properties, BCF produced preferred outcomes over MO. The authors concluded that BCF emulsion performed better than MO regarding its high specific heat, higher temperature conductivity, and better capacity to infiltrate the tool-chip boundary. Figure 14. Variations in feed force with (a) feed and (b) cutting speed under FC and MQCF [102], License Number: 5287301340048.
Shukla et al. [122] investigated CNC milling efficiency when machining Aluminum 6061 using TiAIN-coated carbide PVD inserts through three diverse conditions, comprising a flood, dry, and MQL technique derived from vegetable oil. The Taguchi Lo array was utilized to set up testing methods for three machining model variables including cutting speed (100, 200, and 300 mm/min), cutting depth (0.5, 1.0, and 1.5 mm), and feed rate (0.045, 0.0675, and 0.09 mm). Twenty-seven experiments were conducted: nine unde dry conditions, nine using MQL based on canola oil, and nine under flooding conditions The MOL cutting fluid was formulated by mixing canola oil with a 6% v/v ratio of water The authors stated that the tool wear at the minimum input variable (see Figure 15) was found to be lower compared to the maximum input variable configuration. In the scenario of MQL-aided machining, it was observed that negligible tool wear was visible on the tool insert, while substantial tool degradation was noticed under flooded and dry states Canola-derived MQL resulted in reduced friction and strong lubrication at the surface where work and tool interact. In the dry state, maximum friction and maximum cutting forces occurred, which consequently caused a higher amount of tool wear. Flank wear per cooling state was discovered to rise at elevated tiers of machining variables (see Figure 16, compared to reduced tiers of input variables. This is because elevated cutting speeds and cutting depths resulted in increments in temperature and wear at the interface of the piece and tool. Wear at the crater was also observed in the dry state, which may have beer due to the increased friction and elevated force applied by the unbroken chip on the face of the tool, which consequently increased the temperature and made the tool less hard MQL demonstrated the most noticeable change in surface roughness at minimum cutting speeds, high depth of cut, and high feed/tooth. The optimal parameters for finer surface quality proposed from this research study are a feed/tooth of 0.045 mm, a cutting speed of 300 mm/min, and a DOC of 1.00 mm across all three machining conditions. Figure 15. Tool wear under experimental conditions 1: CS = 100 m/min; F = 0.045; DOC = 0.5 mm [122], License Number: 5287300323532.
Shukla et al. [122] investigated CNC milling efficiency when machining Aluminum 6061 using TiAIN-coated carbide PVD inserts through three diverse conditions, comprising a flood, dry, and MQL technique derived from vegetable oil. The Taguchi Lo array was utilized to set up testing methods for three machining model variables including cutting speed (100, 200, and 300 mm/min), cutting depth (0.5, 1.0, and 1.5 mm), and feed rate (0.045, 0.0675, and 0.09 mm). Twenty-seven experiments were conducted: nine unde dry conditions, nine using MQL based on canola oil, and nine under flooding conditions The MOL cutting fluid was formulated by mixing canola oil with a 6% v/v ratio of water The authors stated that the tool wear at the minimum input variable (see Figure 15) was found to be lower compared to the maximum input variable configuration. In the scenario of MQL-aided machining, it was observed that negligible tool wear was visible on the tool insert, while substantial tool degradation was noticed under flooded and dry states Canola-derived MQL resulted in reduced friction and strong lubrication at the surface where work and tool interact. In the dry state, maximum friction and maximum cutting forces occurred, which consequently caused a higher amount of tool wear. Flank wear per cooling state was discovered to rise at elevated tiers of machining variables (see Figure 16, compared to reduced tiers of input variables. This is because elevated cutting speeds and cutting depths resulted in increments in temperature and wear at the interface of the piece and tool. Wear at the crater was also observed in the dry state, which may have beer due to the increased friction and elevated force applied by the unbroken chip on the face of the tool, which consequently increased the temperature and made the tool less hard MQL demonstrated the most noticeable change in surface roughness at minimum cutting speeds, high depth of cut, and high feed/tooth. The optimal parameters for finer surface quality proposed from this research study are a feed/tooth of 0.045 mm, a cutting speed of 300 mm/min, and a DOC of 1.00 mm across all three machining conditions. Figure 15. Tool wear under experimental conditions 1: CS = 100 m/min; F = 0.045; DOC = 0.5 mm [122], License Number: 5287300323532.
Figure 16. Tool wear under experimental conditions 9: CS = 300 m/min; F = 0.09; DOC = 1 mm [122], License Number: 5287300323532.
Figure 16. Tool wear under experimental conditions 9: CS = 300 m/min; F = 0.09; DOC = 1 mm [122], License Number: 5287300323532.
Figure 17. Performance of the dry milling process [126], License Number: 5287310463001. (a) Tool life against lubricating medium; (b) Surface roughness against lubricating medium; (c) Resultant cutting force against lubricating medium.
Figure 17. Performance of the dry milling process [126], License Number: 5287310463001. (a) Tool life against lubricating medium; (b) Surface roughness against lubricating medium; (c) Resultant cutting force against lubricating medium.
Figure 18. Relationship between base oil viscosity and temperature under varied working condi- tions [138], License Number: 5287310815463.
Figure 18. Relationship between base oil viscosity and temperature under varied working condi- tions [138], License Number: 5287310815463.
Figure 19. The specific grinding force under varied working conditions [138], License Number: 5287310815463.
Figure 19. The specific grinding force under varied working conditions [138], License Number: 5287310815463.
Figure 20. Specific grinding energies of varied base oils [138], License Number: 5287310815463
Figure 20. Specific grinding energies of varied base oils [138], License Number: 5287310815463
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