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Figure 2: Distribution of Iron Age-Early Historic sites in the Middle Mahanadi Valley

Figure 2 Distribution of Iron Age-Early Historic sites in the Middle Mahanadi Valley

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Figure 1: Distribution of different categories of Iron Age-Early Historic and later cultural sites associated with Black-and-Red Ware and other potteries in the Middle Mahanadi Valley from the Hirakud Dam Reservoir to about the Tikaraparha Gorge is joined by several major and minor tributaries, viz. the Jira, the Ong, the Suktel, the Tel, the Udanti, the Harihar, etc., besides numerous seasonal as well as ephemeral streams. Our sustained 2xploration and a series of test excavations conducted in different parts of the area during different field seasons, brought to light sixty-eight habitation sites (Figure 1) of the early farming communities besides fortified urban to semi-urban sites ranging in date from the Neolithic through the Chalcolithic to the Early as well as later Historic periods (Behera 2000-01: 13-34, 2002-03: 87-103; Pradhan 2006: 62-78; Behera and Thakur 2016: 89-97; Behera and Hussain 2017: 37-53; Behera et al. 2015: 178-196; Behera 1982: 16-22, etc.). Although a large number of early habitation sites have been reported recently from the tributaries of the Mahanadi, viz. the Ong, Suktel, Tel, Udanti, etc., comprehensive reports on these investigations are still awaited. The present paper intends to focus on the Iron Age cultures located along the river Mahanadi and a few of its northern tributaries, like the Harihar and the Surubali streams.
Figure 1: Distribution of different categories of Iron Age-Early Historic and later cultural sites associated with Black-and-Red Ware and other potteries in the Middle Mahanadi Valley from the Hirakud Dam Reservoir to about the Tikaraparha Gorge is joined by several major and minor tributaries, viz. the Jira, the Ong, the Suktel, the Tel, the Udanti, the Harihar, etc., besides numerous seasonal as well as ephemeral streams. Our sustained 2xploration and a series of test excavations conducted in different parts of the area during different field seasons, brought to light sixty-eight habitation sites (Figure 1) of the early farming communities besides fortified urban to semi-urban sites ranging in date from the Neolithic through the Chalcolithic to the Early as well as later Historic periods (Behera 2000-01: 13-34, 2002-03: 87-103; Pradhan 2006: 62-78; Behera and Thakur 2016: 89-97; Behera and Hussain 2017: 37-53; Behera et al. 2015: 178-196; Behera 1982: 16-22, etc.). Although a large number of early habitation sites have been reported recently from the tributaries of the Mahanadi, viz. the Ong, Suktel, Tel, Udanti, etc., comprehensive reports on these investigations are still awaited. The present paper intends to focus on the Iron Age cultures located along the river Mahanadi and a few of its northern tributaries, like the Harihar and the Surubali streams.
Table 2: Radiocarbon dates from the Iron Age phase from different sites in the Middle Mahanadi Valley
Table 2: Radiocarbon dates from the Iron Age phase from different sites in the Middle Mahanadi Valley
Early Iron Age (Phase - I)
Early Iron Age (Phase - I)
Settlements of this phase are normally small in size spreading over one to two hectares area and thickness of the deposit varies between 30cm and 50cm. From several burnt clay lumps with distinct reed and chaff impression on them (Figure 3), it is surmised that people were living in wattle-and-daub houses. Due to the limited nature of excavations, we could not detect any evidence pertaining to structural features and/or post holes. However, evidence for stone hearth associated with charcoal fragments, ashes and a few faunal remains have been recorded at the Iron Age site of Amudda (Behera et al. 2017: 965-991).
Settlements of this phase are normally small in size spreading over one to two hectares area and thickness of the deposit varies between 30cm and 50cm. From several burnt clay lumps with distinct reed and chaff impression on them (Figure 3), it is surmised that people were living in wattle-and-daub houses. Due to the limited nature of excavations, we could not detect any evidence pertaining to structural features and/or post holes. However, evidence for stone hearth associated with charcoal fragments, ashes and a few faunal remains have been recorded at the Iron Age site of Amudda (Behera et al. 2017: 965-991).
At almost all the excavated Iron Age deposits from the middle Mahanadi valley substantial quantities of faunal as well as floral remains in the form of cereal grain impressions on burnt clay lumps and actual seeds have been recovered. However, while detailed studies of faunal materials from the site of Badmal Asurgarh (Goyal et al., 2014: 52-61) and Taraporegarh site (Behera et al., 2015: 187-90) have been done, analytical results on the floral remains are still awaited. Many faunal remains
At almost all the excavated Iron Age deposits from the middle Mahanadi valley substantial quantities of faunal as well as floral remains in the form of cereal grain impressions on burnt clay lumps and actual seeds have been recovered. However, while detailed studies of faunal materials from the site of Badmal Asurgarh (Goyal et al., 2014: 52-61) and Taraporegarh site (Behera et al., 2015: 187-90) have been done, analytical results on the floral remains are still awaited. Many faunal remains
domesticated and wild, from the site of Badmal Asurgarh bear distinct cut/butchering marks on them (14.29%), besides charred bone fragments (85.71%), suggesting these animals formed part of the dietary consumption of the contemporary Iron Age people. The animals represented at Badmal Asurgarh (Iron Age Phase-I) comprise, Bubalus bubalis, Bos/Bubalus, Capra/Ovis, Boselaphus tragocamelus, Cervus unicolor, Panthera pardus, besides General mammal bone. Faunal and floral remains from other Iron Age deposits in the study area are submitted to the Deccan College Post Graduate and Research Institute (Deemed University) for detailed studies and results are awaited. On the available evidence it may be said that people during this phase had mixed subsistence economy, viz. Agriculture and animal husbandry besides hunting of wild animals, aquatic resources and gathering of forest products for subsistence as well as non- subsistence purposes.
domesticated and wild, from the site of Badmal Asurgarh bear distinct cut/butchering marks on them (14.29%), besides charred bone fragments (85.71%), suggesting these animals formed part of the dietary consumption of the contemporary Iron Age people. The animals represented at Badmal Asurgarh (Iron Age Phase-I) comprise, Bubalus bubalis, Bos/Bubalus, Capra/Ovis, Boselaphus tragocamelus, Cervus unicolor, Panthera pardus, besides General mammal bone. Faunal and floral remains from other Iron Age deposits in the study area are submitted to the Deccan College Post Graduate and Research Institute (Deemed University) for detailed studies and results are awaited. On the available evidence it may be said that people during this phase had mixed subsistence economy, viz. Agriculture and animal husbandry besides hunting of wild animals, aquatic resources and gathering of forest products for subsistence as well as non- subsistence purposes.
Figure 7: 1-5 white painted BRW, white painted BSW, 6-9 BSW shapes with white paintings on the outer surface, 10 and 11white painted RSW, 12-17 plain BRW shapes with liquid ochre applications on the outer surface, 18 and 19 lids of Tan Ware, 20-25 RSW shapes, 26-28 BSW shapes with graffiti marks on the outer surface, 29-30 plain BSW shapes
Figure 7: 1-5 white painted BRW, white painted BSW, 6-9 BSW shapes with white paintings on the outer surface, 10 and 11white painted RSW, 12-17 plain BRW shapes with liquid ochre applications on the outer surface, 18 and 19 lids of Tan Ware, 20-25 RSW shapes, 26-28 BSW shapes with graffiti marks on the outer surface, 29-30 plain BSW shapes
Figure 9: 1 and 2 bone tools from Kantipuleswar and Amudda respectively; 3 iron point (?) from Amudda; 4 flat iron object and 5 iron rod (?) from Kantipuleswar; 6-9 iron slags from Amudda; 10 iron slag from Kapasira; 11 terracotta bead from Kapasira; 12 stone sling ball of Khondolite from Kantipuleswar well as white painted Black-and-Red Ware (BRW), blackish Grey Ware (GW), plain Red Ware (RW) and evidence of Black-on-Red Ware. Except the plain RW and Black- on-Red Ware, all other ware types are thoroughly burnished and of medium to course fabric with organic and inorganic inclusions (Figure 4). In the case of white-painted BRW, paintings were done exclusively on the inner surface of bowls and also on the inner surface of the flaring rim of medium-sized vases. Most of the painted designs are the continuation of the earlier Chalcolithic phase in the region. Most noteworthy is the occurrence of Black-on-Red Ware reported from the Iron Age deposits at Kapasira, Amudda and Subulia, among which those recorded from the site of Kapasira are of fine fabric without any inclusions (Figure 4: 10-12). Besides paintings, pots of RSW, BSW and RW are mostly decorated with appliqué bands and those with fingertip marks, incisions that mostly occur on the rim edge of RSW and BSW pots.
Figure 9: 1 and 2 bone tools from Kantipuleswar and Amudda respectively; 3 iron point (?) from Amudda; 4 flat iron object and 5 iron rod (?) from Kantipuleswar; 6-9 iron slags from Amudda; 10 iron slag from Kapasira; 11 terracotta bead from Kapasira; 12 stone sling ball of Khondolite from Kantipuleswar well as white painted Black-and-Red Ware (BRW), blackish Grey Ware (GW), plain Red Ware (RW) and evidence of Black-on-Red Ware. Except the plain RW and Black- on-Red Ware, all other ware types are thoroughly burnished and of medium to course fabric with organic and inorganic inclusions (Figure 4). In the case of white-painted BRW, paintings were done exclusively on the inner surface of bowls and also on the inner surface of the flaring rim of medium-sized vases. Most of the painted designs are the continuation of the earlier Chalcolithic phase in the region. Most noteworthy is the occurrence of Black-on-Red Ware reported from the Iron Age deposits at Kapasira, Amudda and Subulia, among which those recorded from the site of Kapasira are of fine fabric without any inclusions (Figure 4: 10-12). Besides paintings, pots of RSW, BSW and RW are mostly decorated with appliqué bands and those with fingertip marks, incisions that mostly occur on the rim edge of RSW and BSW pots.
Figure 10: RSW with chocolate paintings on the inner surface of shape and sherd from Taraporegarh
Figure 10: RSW with chocolate paintings on the inner surface of shape and sherd from Taraporegarh
levels of Phase-I. In terms of fabric, mostly potteries are medium to fine but, except RW almost majority of the pots bear burnishing marks on them and their core reveals the use of degraissant during clay preparation for making pots. Some of the decorative patterns of the preceding sub-phase continued viz. appliqué bands, with or without decoration, which occur on the body or on the shoulder parts of vases and oblique incised patterns on the rim edge of particularly RSW potteries. Application of red ochre wash on the outer surface of the BRW potteries is a new phenomenon during this phase, which normally found in the Neolithic-Chalcolithic ceramic assemblages in Odisha (Sinha 2000: 322-48). Like the earlier levels of Phase-I here also we could not register evidence for large storage jars (Figure 8), indicating non-intensification in the agricultural process. People during this sub-phase still continued to live in wattle-and- daub huts, as revealed from lumps of burnt earth with reed/chaff impressions. From the faunal and floral remains, it appears that people had mixed subsistence economy like the preceding sub-phase. Figure 11: Decorated potteries from Iron Age (Phase-II)
levels of Phase-I. In terms of fabric, mostly potteries are medium to fine but, except RW almost majority of the pots bear burnishing marks on them and their core reveals the use of degraissant during clay preparation for making pots. Some of the decorative patterns of the preceding sub-phase continued viz. appliqué bands, with or without decoration, which occur on the body or on the shoulder parts of vases and oblique incised patterns on the rim edge of particularly RSW potteries. Application of red ochre wash on the outer surface of the BRW potteries is a new phenomenon during this phase, which normally found in the Neolithic-Chalcolithic ceramic assemblages in Odisha (Sinha 2000: 322-48). Like the earlier levels of Phase-I here also we could not register evidence for large storage jars (Figure 8), indicating non-intensification in the agricultural process. People during this sub-phase still continued to live in wattle-and- daub huts, as revealed from lumps of burnt earth with reed/chaff impressions. From the faunal and floral remains, it appears that people had mixed subsistence economy like the preceding sub-phase. Figure 11: Decorated potteries from Iron Age (Phase-II)
Figure 12: 1-14 BRW shapes and 15-33 BSW shapes
Figure 12: 1-14 BRW shapes and 15-33 BSW shapes
Figure 13: 6, 14 and 15 plain RW; 1-5, 7-13 and16-25 RSW potteries
Figure 13: 6, 14 and 15 plain RW; 1-5, 7-13 and16-25 RSW potteries
These shapes have been recorded from almost majority of the sites excavated/explored in. the middle Mahanadi valley region containing Iron Age (Phase-II) deposits. Large- sized, hand-made storage vessels of course fabric in Red Ware have been recorded for the first time from this phase at the site of Kantipuleswar (Figure 17), indicating intensive agricultural activities. However, as stated earlier, floral remains in the form of charred grains, collected from excavated contexts from this cultural phase from several sites have been submitted for identification and results are still awaited. At the present state of our knowledge nothing particular can be said on the agricultural practices of the people of this period. sites have been submitted for identification and results are still awaited. At the present
These shapes have been recorded from almost majority of the sites excavated/explored in. the middle Mahanadi valley region containing Iron Age (Phase-II) deposits. Large- sized, hand-made storage vessels of course fabric in Red Ware have been recorded for the first time from this phase at the site of Kantipuleswar (Figure 17), indicating intensive agricultural activities. However, as stated earlier, floral remains in the form of charred grains, collected from excavated contexts from this cultural phase from several sites have been submitted for identification and results are still awaited. At the present state of our knowledge nothing particular can be said on the agricultural practices of the people of this period. sites have been submitted for identification and results are still awaited. At the present
Figure 15: 1-7, 16 RW; 8-15 RSW; 17-24 BRW; 26-30 Tan Ware; 25, 31-38 BSW
Figure 15: 1-7, 16 RW; 8-15 RSW; 17-24 BRW; 26-30 Tan Ware; 25, 31-38 BSW
Figure 16: Lids and lid handles; 1 and 2 BSW, 3-5 RSW, and 6 RW
Figure 16: Lids and lid handles; 1 and 2 BSW, 3-5 RSW, and 6 RW
Figure 17: Hand-made large storage vessels from Kantipuleswar
Figure 17: Hand-made large storage vessels from Kantipuleswar
Figure 18: Graffiti marked potteries from Iron Age (Phase-II); 1-13 RSW, 14-26 BRW
Figure 18: Graffiti marked potteries from Iron Age (Phase-II); 1-13 RSW, 14-26 BRW
Figure 19: Graffiti marked potteries from Iron Age (Phase-II); 1-10 BSW
Figure 19: Graffiti marked potteries from Iron Age (Phase-II); 1-10 BSW
unidentifiable iron objects, 13 lower part of an iron bowl, 14 spherical carnelian bead,
unidentifiable iron objects, 13 lower part of an iron bowl, 14 spherical carnelian bead,
Figure 23: 1-8 RSW, 9-15 RW, 16-22 BSW and 23-30 BRW
Figure 23: 1-8 RSW, 9-15 RW, 16-22 BSW and 23-30 BRW
Figure 24: 1-13 RW, 14-31 RSW, 32-51 BRW and 52-64 BSW
Figure 24: 1-13 RW, 14-31 RSW, 32-51 BRW and 52-64 BSW
Figure 25: Decorated potteries from Iron Age (Phase-III)
Figure 25: Decorated potteries from Iron Age (Phase-III)
Figure 26: Knobbed wares in BSW from Phase -— III
Figure 26: Knobbed wares in BSW from Phase -— III
Figure 27: Cairn circle found inside the trench at Amudda
Figure 27: Cairn circle found inside the trench at Amudda
Figure 28: Plan of the cairn circle at Amudda
Figure 28: Plan of the cairn circle at Amudda
Figure 29: Granite rock outcrop with cupules near the habitation mound at Amudda many new varieties were introduced during this phase. While painted pottery are totally absent, now potteries are decorated mostly with only appliqué and incised design patterns (Figure 25). For the first time, knobbed dishes/bowls with a flat base appeared in BSW during this phase (Figure 26). The fabric of the available pots varies between fine to medium, except storage vessels, and shapes mostly comprise vases, bowls, dishes, basins, storage jars and lids of different types. Very few pots in BRW and RSW bear graffiti marks (Table 3). Megalith Building bantll Dnt During the excavation at Amudda, a cairn circle was unearthed associated with the late phase of Iron Age deposit at the site (Figure 27 and 28). Due to the repeated flooding in the Mahanadi the habitation deposit of this phase is partially represented and having already been largely damaged because of modern agricultural activities, still remains of several megalithic structures are found here and there in the exposed surface at different location of the site. Here it may be noted that the local villagers destroyed several such megalithic monuments at the site in search of treasure.
Figure 29: Granite rock outcrop with cupules near the habitation mound at Amudda many new varieties were introduced during this phase. While painted pottery are totally absent, now potteries are decorated mostly with only appliqué and incised design patterns (Figure 25). For the first time, knobbed dishes/bowls with a flat base appeared in BSW during this phase (Figure 26). The fabric of the available pots varies between fine to medium, except storage vessels, and shapes mostly comprise vases, bowls, dishes, basins, storage jars and lids of different types. Very few pots in BRW and RSW bear graffiti marks (Table 3). Megalith Building bantll Dnt During the excavation at Amudda, a cairn circle was unearthed associated with the late phase of Iron Age deposit at the site (Figure 27 and 28). Due to the repeated flooding in the Mahanadi the habitation deposit of this phase is partially represented and having already been largely damaged because of modern agricultural activities, still remains of several megalithic structures are found here and there in the exposed surface at different location of the site. Here it may be noted that the local villagers destroyed several such megalithic monuments at the site in search of treasure.
Figure 31: Terracotta Animal and Human figurine
Figure 31: Terracotta Animal and Human figurine
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Iron Age (Archaeology)
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