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Suspected primary and secondary causes of each geomorphic/hydrologic environment.

Table 2 Suspected primary and secondary causes of each geomorphic/hydrologic environment.

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Fig. 2. The Azraq oases and marshes, study localities, profile locations, and geomorphological sketch.
Fig. 2. The Azraq oases and marshes, study localities, profile locations, and geomorphological sketch.
Fig. 3. The Druze Marsh. Location of stratigraphic sections and topographic profile: (2 and 3). The study area (i.e., the GAOA) is located at the northwestern corner of Qa‘ Azraq, practically at its contact with the Tertiary basalt (Fig. 2). Before water over-extraction, the two most prominent spring areas were the Druze Marsh (also known as North Azraq or Azraq ad-Duruz) and the Shishan Marsh (also known as South Azraq or Azraq as-Shishan). The Druze Marsh is located at an embayment of Qa‘ Azraq created by a basalt peninsula (Figs. 2 and 3). The locality is known for the Azraq Castle, located west of the marsh (Figs. 3 and 4). The as-Shishan Marsh, located within the perimeter of the Azraq Nature Reserve, corresponds to a series of springs. In historic times, a Roman settlement and a dam to contain the water of the spring existed in the area. The main settlers in later historic times were the Chechen immigrants (hence the name Shishan). The use of local aquatic resources and date palm culti- vation became their important activities until the drying of the marshes. As more water was pumped from the GAOA to supply the growing population of Jordan, the marshes began to dry. By the mid-1990s the Druze Marsh dried out completely. Under the auspices of the Royal Society for the Conservation of Nature (RSCN), a pump was used to replenish the water of the marsh within the nearby nature reserve in the so-called Sirhani Pool. As a result, only
Fig. 3. The Druze Marsh. Location of stratigraphic sections and topographic profile: (2 and 3). The study area (i.e., the GAOA) is located at the northwestern corner of Qa‘ Azraq, practically at its contact with the Tertiary basalt (Fig. 2). Before water over-extraction, the two most prominent spring areas were the Druze Marsh (also known as North Azraq or Azraq ad-Duruz) and the Shishan Marsh (also known as South Azraq or Azraq as-Shishan). The Druze Marsh is located at an embayment of Qa‘ Azraq created by a basalt peninsula (Figs. 2 and 3). The locality is known for the Azraq Castle, located west of the marsh (Figs. 3 and 4). The as-Shishan Marsh, located within the perimeter of the Azraq Nature Reserve, corresponds to a series of springs. In historic times, a Roman settlement and a dam to contain the water of the spring existed in the area. The main settlers in later historic times were the Chechen immigrants (hence the name Shishan). The use of local aquatic resources and date palm culti- vation became their important activities until the drying of the marshes. As more water was pumped from the GAOA to supply the growing population of Jordan, the marshes began to dry. By the mid-1990s the Druze Marsh dried out completely. Under the auspices of the Royal Society for the Conservation of Nature (RSCN), a pump was used to replenish the water of the marsh within the nearby nature reserve in the so-called Sirhani Pool. As a result, only
Fig. 4. Profiles and stratigraphic sections in the Druze Marsh area (see locations in Figs. 1 and 2).
Fig. 4. Profiles and stratigraphic sections in the Druze Marsh area (see locations in Figs. 1 and 2).
Fig. 5. Seasonal hydrology of the Azraq marshes before drying in the early 1990s.
Fig. 5. Seasonal hydrology of the Azraq marshes before drying in the early 1990s.
After excavation was completed, samples were taken for micro- fossils (pollen and phytoliths), grain-size analysis, organic carbon, and soil micromorphology. The results of these analyses are part of theses and dissertation projects and are not yet available for this paper. Soil and sediment descriptions followed the methodology red laser modes, in conjunction with a portable TDS Recon data logger. The sediments from each unit were dry-sieved for addi- tional lithic and bone recovery. Artifacts were analyzed, photo- graphed and labeled. Layer boundaries and depths of occupation surfaces were also recorded using the total station.
After excavation was completed, samples were taken for micro- fossils (pollen and phytoliths), grain-size analysis, organic carbon, and soil micromorphology. The results of these analyses are part of theses and dissertation projects and are not yet available for this paper. Soil and sediment descriptions followed the methodology red laser modes, in conjunction with a portable TDS Recon data logger. The sediments from each unit were dry-sieved for addi- tional lithic and bone recovery. Artifacts were analyzed, photo- graphed and labeled. Layer boundaries and depths of occupation surfaces were also recorded using the total station.
Fig. 9. Section DV-1. The U-series date is a proxy from a similar layer below the Azraq Castle. Section DM-8 has the most complete sequence of pedo- stratigraphic units and occupation surfaces, which is the reason why the description of sedimentary deposition and occupations was based on this section (Fig. 7). Sections DM-1 and DM-11 (Figs. 6 and 7) are used to describe pedo-stratigraphic units and occupa- tions absent in DM-8. The overall chronology of Quaternary Thus far the only dates available in the sections of Azraq ad-Duruz are Uranium—Thorium (U—Th) assays. They were obtained from pedogenic carbonate nodules and were processed by Bassam Ghaleb at the GEOTOP lab of the Université du Québec 4 Montréal. The samples were corrected for detrital content. They are reported here as ranges between the errors. OSL dates were only obtained from section AS-1 in Azraq as-Shishan (See Cordova et al., 2008). The section at the Druze Village is DV-1, was described and samples were taken for further sediment, soil and microfossil analyses. Sedimen- tary units and dates from sections Wadi Enoqiyya (Cordova et al., 2009; Ames and Cordova, in press) are also referred to in this paper. In the Azraq as-Shishan area, sections previously published by Cordova et al. (2008) and Jones and Richter (2011) also contributed some information to this analysis. Section AS-1 in Ayn Sawda, which was described, sampled and dated by Cordova et al. (2008) is pre- sented and discussed in detail here. The information of all the sections mentioned above plus sections published by Jones and Richter (2011) were used to reconstruct the phases of hydrological and geomorphological phases of the GAOA at least since MIS 5e.
Fig. 9. Section DV-1. The U-series date is a proxy from a similar layer below the Azraq Castle. Section DM-8 has the most complete sequence of pedo- stratigraphic units and occupation surfaces, which is the reason why the description of sedimentary deposition and occupations was based on this section (Fig. 7). Sections DM-1 and DM-11 (Figs. 6 and 7) are used to describe pedo-stratigraphic units and occupa- tions absent in DM-8. The overall chronology of Quaternary Thus far the only dates available in the sections of Azraq ad-Duruz are Uranium—Thorium (U—Th) assays. They were obtained from pedogenic carbonate nodules and were processed by Bassam Ghaleb at the GEOTOP lab of the Université du Québec 4 Montréal. The samples were corrected for detrital content. They are reported here as ranges between the errors. OSL dates were only obtained from section AS-1 in Azraq as-Shishan (See Cordova et al., 2008). The section at the Druze Village is DV-1, was described and samples were taken for further sediment, soil and microfossil analyses. Sedimen- tary units and dates from sections Wadi Enoqiyya (Cordova et al., 2009; Ames and Cordova, in press) are also referred to in this paper. In the Azraq as-Shishan area, sections previously published by Cordova et al. (2008) and Jones and Richter (2011) also contributed some information to this analysis. Section AS-1 in Ayn Sawda, which was described, sampled and dated by Cordova et al. (2008) is pre- sented and discussed in detail here. The information of all the sections mentioned above plus sections published by Jones and Richter (2011) were used to reconstruct the phases of hydrological and geomorphological phases of the GAOA at least since MIS 5e.
Fig. 10. AS-1 section in Ayn Sawda (modified from Cordova et al., 2008). Sediment characterization: 1, carbonated hard silt deposit; 2, dark organic deposit; 3, grayish organic deposit; 4 pedogenic development; 5, eolian and altered lacustrine clays; 6, green lacustrine clays.
Fig. 10. AS-1 section in Ayn Sawda (modified from Cordova et al., 2008). Sediment characterization: 1, carbonated hard silt deposit; 2, dark organic deposit; 3, grayish organic deposit; 4 pedogenic development; 5, eolian and altered lacustrine clays; 6, green lacustrine clays.
Fig. 11. Middle Paleolithic occupation surface on dry lake bed in units 2a and 2b and subsequent marsh build up (unit 3a) in section DM-8 (Fig. 7).
Fig. 11. Middle Paleolithic occupation surface on dry lake bed in units 2a and 2b and subsequent marsh build up (unit 3a) in section DM-8 (Fig. 7).
Classification of sedimentary units at the studied sections in relation to geomorphic/ hydrologic environments.
Classification of sedimentary units at the studied sections in relation to geomorphic/ hydrologic environments.
Fig. 12. Transitional environments diagram for the Druze Marsh and Shishan Marsh areas.
Fig. 12. Transitional environments diagram for the Druze Marsh and Shishan Marsh areas.
Fig. 13. Regional paleoclimatic chronology. References: 1, Huckriede and Wieseman (1968); 2, Macumber (2001); 3, Moumani et al. (2003); 4, Abed et al. (2000); 5, Petit-Maire et « (2010); 6, Waldmann et al., 2009; 7, Petraglia et al., 2011; 8, Cordova et al., 2011; 9, Bar-Matthews et al., 2003; 10, Frumkin et al., 2008; 11, Vaks et al., 2010; 11, Fleitmann et al., 200 12, Fleitmann et al., 2011; 13, Smith et al., 2004, 2007; 14, Szabo et al., 1995.
Fig. 13. Regional paleoclimatic chronology. References: 1, Huckriede and Wieseman (1968); 2, Macumber (2001); 3, Moumani et al. (2003); 4, Abed et al. (2000); 5, Petit-Maire et « (2010); 6, Waldmann et al., 2009; 7, Petraglia et al., 2011; 8, Cordova et al., 2011; 9, Bar-Matthews et al., 2003; 10, Frumkin et al., 2008; 11, Vaks et al., 2010; 11, Fleitmann et al., 200 12, Fleitmann et al., 2011; 13, Smith et al., 2004, 2007; 14, Szabo et al., 1995.
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ArchaeologyGeologyAncient Near EastQuaternary GeoarchaeologyGlacials and Interglacials
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