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Figure 26. Examples of visualizations from BIMs. (Source: see page 83.) a relatively low cost opportunity for simplifying access to visual representations of psychomotor skill knowledge. Such models are known as, for example, product models (in manufacturing) and building information models (in construction). offer interactive three dimensional visualizations of products, These models buildings etc. Accordingly, they can be used to communicate what to do next and where to do it to people who lack basic skills (Mourgues et al., 2007). Figure 26 below s of three dimensional visualization from building information models examples illustrate the different levels of detail that can be viewed and visualizations which are available. hows the types (BIMs). These the quality of

Figure 26 Examples of visualizations from BIMs. (Source: see page 83.) a relatively low cost opportunity for simplifying access to visual representations of psychomotor skill knowledge. Such models are known as, for example, product models (in manufacturing) and building information models (in construction). offer interactive three dimensional visualizations of products, These models buildings etc. Accordingly, they can be used to communicate what to do next and where to do it to people who lack basic skills (Mourgues et al., 2007). Figure 26 below s of three dimensional visualization from building information models examples illustrate the different levels of detail that can be viewed and visualizations which are available. hows the types (BIMs). These the quality of

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Global skill shortages are reported in m any occupations. Exi sting strategies for addressing skill shortages are not successful and, as a result, skill shortages are an intractable problem. / real- ‘tim commu industry practitio e without re ar, the comm tudy. Lite nication medi scientis time communicati Further, application and in ts. The study on the study rature revi ners seeking new strategy, real-time communication of potential to bring about radical reductions in skill shortages. T this VTT Working Paper was to determi access to a person with releva lance on unication a, and co revealed th of skil teg ration of th ew encompassed studi revealed that computational se skill knowledge witl he goal of the stu nt existing skill of manual skills. The research involved literatu mputational semantics. Field study involved in ne how skill knowledge could be communicated i es concemed with skil hout human instructors, has th dy reported i knowledge. re review an knowledge terviews wit. sh hno to address skil at many of the tec knowledge withou ese technologies and methods. ortages and computation ogies and methods require t human instructors are already available mantics is essential to the successfu al semantic d for the real
Global skill shortages are reported in m any occupations. Exi sting strategies for addressing skill shortages are not successful and, as a result, skill shortages are an intractable problem. / real- ‘tim commu industry practitio e without re ar, the comm tudy. Lite nication medi scientis time communicati Further, application and in ts. The study on the study rature revi ners seeking new strategy, real-time communication of potential to bring about radical reductions in skill shortages. T this VTT Working Paper was to determi access to a person with releva lance on unication a, and co revealed th of skil teg ration of th ew encompassed studi revealed that computational se skill knowledge witl he goal of the stu nt existing skill of manual skills. The research involved literatu mputational semantics. Field study involved in ne how skill knowledge could be communicated i es concemed with skil hout human instructors, has th dy reported i knowledge. re review an knowledge terviews wit. sh hno to address skil at many of the tec knowledge withou ese technologies and methods. ortages and computation ogies and methods require t human instructors are already available mantics is essential to the successfu al semantic d for the real
Finland is a leader in the development of advanced information and communications technologies (aICTs). These enable improved information and/or communication by surpassing, in one or more characteristics, combinations of existing information and communication technologies. As shown in Figure 1 below, alCTs, such as Augmented Reality, have potential to enable the real-time communication of skill knowledge to people who do not have relevant existing skills. Reality, have potential to enable the real-time communication of skill knowledge to However, skill knowledge is typically communicated through one-to-one face-to-face human interaction between a person with relevant existing skills (e.g. a craftsperson) and a person without relevant existing skills (e.g. an apprentice). Such interactions can include physical demonstrations, audio feedback, visual feedback and very flexible
Finland is a leader in the development of advanced information and communications technologies (aICTs). These enable improved information and/or communication by surpassing, in one or more characteristics, combinations of existing information and communication technologies. As shown in Figure 1 below, alCTs, such as Augmented Reality, have potential to enable the real-time communication of skill knowledge to people who do not have relevant existing skills. Reality, have potential to enable the real-time communication of skill knowledge to However, skill knowledge is typically communicated through one-to-one face-to-face human interaction between a person with relevant existing skills (e.g. a craftsperson) and a person without relevant existing skills (e.g. an apprentice). Such interactions can include physical demonstrations, audio feedback, visual feedback and very flexible
The research reported in this VTT Working Paper was concerned with the communicatior of specific skills used during manual work. In particular, the communication of specific manual skills to people who lack basic skills. This is because functional illiteracy (ir reading, writing and mathematics) is a widespread barrier to the communication of skill Firstly, because functional illiteracy is prevalent within many countries including industrialized nations such as Britain and the USA (BBC, 2000). Secondly, because many people who are literate in their home country can find themselves to be functionally illiterate when they migrate to other countries in which other languages are used. A summary of the research focus is presented in Figure 3 below. Global skill shortages exist in many occupations. Global skill shortages have been reported in many occupations (Cohen and Zaidi, 2002). In 2007, the Australian government, for example, reported a lack of people with the necessary skills to be employed as: automotive electricians, bakers, binder and finishers, bricklayers, business equipment technicians, butchers, cabinetmakers, carpenters, chefs, cooks, dentists, electricians, electrotechnology assemblers, engineering tradespersons — fabrication, floor finisher and coverers, furniture polishers, glass and glazing tradespersons, hairdressers, heavy vehicle motor mechanics, joiners, lift electricians, light vehicle motor mechanics, painter and decorators, panel beaters, pastrycooks, plasterers, plumbers, printing machinists, roofers, shipwrights, tilers — wall and floor, upholsterers, vehicle body builders, vehicle painters, vehicle trimmers, wood machinists (DEST, 2007a). All of hese occupations involve manual work. Similarly, New Zealand’s Department of Labour maintains an Immediate Skill Shortage List (ISSL) that filled twenty-six pages in 2007. The ISSL included agricultural machinery operators, arborists, autoglaziers, coachbuilders, crane operators, die cutter operators, drain layers, fibreglass radesperson, marine laminators, plastics die setters, scaffolders, sheet metal workers, elecommunications engineers. New Zealand’s Department of Labour also maintains a ist of what it terms, absolute skill shortages. In 2007, this list included: electricians, automotive electricians, diesel mechanic, motor mechanic, auto air conditioning echnicians, fitter & turners, fitter welders, cabinet makers, boatbuilders, carpenter/joiners, plumbers, line mechanics. Again, all of these occupations involve manual work (New Zealand Department of Labour, 2007).
The research reported in this VTT Working Paper was concerned with the communicatior of specific skills used during manual work. In particular, the communication of specific manual skills to people who lack basic skills. This is because functional illiteracy (ir reading, writing and mathematics) is a widespread barrier to the communication of skill Firstly, because functional illiteracy is prevalent within many countries including industrialized nations such as Britain and the USA (BBC, 2000). Secondly, because many people who are literate in their home country can find themselves to be functionally illiterate when they migrate to other countries in which other languages are used. A summary of the research focus is presented in Figure 3 below. Global skill shortages exist in many occupations. Global skill shortages have been reported in many occupations (Cohen and Zaidi, 2002). In 2007, the Australian government, for example, reported a lack of people with the necessary skills to be employed as: automotive electricians, bakers, binder and finishers, bricklayers, business equipment technicians, butchers, cabinetmakers, carpenters, chefs, cooks, dentists, electricians, electrotechnology assemblers, engineering tradespersons — fabrication, floor finisher and coverers, furniture polishers, glass and glazing tradespersons, hairdressers, heavy vehicle motor mechanics, joiners, lift electricians, light vehicle motor mechanics, painter and decorators, panel beaters, pastrycooks, plasterers, plumbers, printing machinists, roofers, shipwrights, tilers — wall and floor, upholsterers, vehicle body builders, vehicle painters, vehicle trimmers, wood machinists (DEST, 2007a). All of hese occupations involve manual work. Similarly, New Zealand’s Department of Labour maintains an Immediate Skill Shortage List (ISSL) that filled twenty-six pages in 2007. The ISSL included agricultural machinery operators, arborists, autoglaziers, coachbuilders, crane operators, die cutter operators, drain layers, fibreglass radesperson, marine laminators, plastics die setters, scaffolders, sheet metal workers, elecommunications engineers. New Zealand’s Department of Labour also maintains a ist of what it terms, absolute skill shortages. In 2007, this list included: electricians, automotive electricians, diesel mechanic, motor mechanic, auto air conditioning echnicians, fitter & turners, fitter welders, cabinet makers, boatbuilders, carpenter/joiners, plumbers, line mechanics. Again, all of these occupations involve manual work (New Zealand Department of Labour, 2007).
TSYCMUMIULUL SKITS Call DO TIME — SrUss, UPC — CIUSEU, UISCICLE — SCrilal — CUMUMUUGUS (Gilchrist and Gruber, 1984). The environments in which psychomotor skills are performed may be fixed, stable or moving. The nature of the performance environment determines the nature of the successful pattern of movement that will be developed as a result of practice of a particular motor skill (Gentile, 1977). Fine motor skills involve neuromuscular coordination that are usually precision orientated and involve hand-eye coordination. Some examples are holding a panel pin against a glazing bead while hitting it with a hammer. A gross motor skill involves contractions and usage of the large muscle of the body and the whole body is usually in movement, for example. when swinging a sledge hammer. Examples are shown in Figure 6 below. Open skills are those in which the environment is unstable, changeable and moving. The objective in motor skills is to develop a repertoire of movements within a particular class of movement to enable the performer to respond to the changing environments. Closed skills are those in which the performance environment is stable, fixed, repetitive and unchanging between movement selection, initiation, and completion. In closed
TSYCMUMIULUL SKITS Call DO TIME — SrUss, UPC — CIUSEU, UISCICLE — SCrilal — CUMUMUUGUS (Gilchrist and Gruber, 1984). The environments in which psychomotor skills are performed may be fixed, stable or moving. The nature of the performance environment determines the nature of the successful pattern of movement that will be developed as a result of practice of a particular motor skill (Gentile, 1977). Fine motor skills involve neuromuscular coordination that are usually precision orientated and involve hand-eye coordination. Some examples are holding a panel pin against a glazing bead while hitting it with a hammer. A gross motor skill involves contractions and usage of the large muscle of the body and the whole body is usually in movement, for example. when swinging a sledge hammer. Examples are shown in Figure 6 below. Open skills are those in which the environment is unstable, changeable and moving. The objective in motor skills is to develop a repertoire of movements within a particular class of movement to enable the performer to respond to the changing environments. Closed skills are those in which the performance environment is stable, fixed, repetitive and unchanging between movement selection, initiation, and completion. In closed
Table 2. Cognitive, affective and psychomotor taxonomies. Simpson’s taxonomy. Elizabeth Simpson’s interpretation of the Psychomotor domain differs from Dave’s chiefly because it contains extra two levels prior to the initial imitation or copy stage (Simpson, 1966; 1972). In total, she proposed seven levels: Perception (becoming aware of simulation and the need for action); Set (preparing for action); Guided Responses (responding with assistance from a teacher or coach); Mechanism (responding habitually); Complex Response (resolving uncertainty and performing difficult tasks automatically; Adaptation (altering responses to fit new situations; Origination (creating new acts or expressions). Arguably for certain situations, Simpson’s first two levels, ‘Perception’ and ‘Set’ are assumed or incorporated within Dave’s first ‘Imitation’ level. However, for young children, or for adults learning entirely new and challenging physical skills (which may require some additional attention to awareness and perception, and mental preparation), or for anyone learning skills which involve expression of feeling and emotion, then Simpson’s taxonomy could be more useful because it more specifically address these issues. Simpson’s version is particularly useful if taking adults out of their comfort zones, because it addresses sensory, perception (and by implication attitudinal) and preparation issues. For example anything fearsome or threatening, like emergency routines, conflict situations, tough physical tasks or conditions (Chapman, 2006). In Table 3 below, Dave’s taxonomy is placed alongside Harrow’s taxonomy and Simpson’s taxonomy.
Table 2. Cognitive, affective and psychomotor taxonomies. Simpson’s taxonomy. Elizabeth Simpson’s interpretation of the Psychomotor domain differs from Dave’s chiefly because it contains extra two levels prior to the initial imitation or copy stage (Simpson, 1966; 1972). In total, she proposed seven levels: Perception (becoming aware of simulation and the need for action); Set (preparing for action); Guided Responses (responding with assistance from a teacher or coach); Mechanism (responding habitually); Complex Response (resolving uncertainty and performing difficult tasks automatically; Adaptation (altering responses to fit new situations; Origination (creating new acts or expressions). Arguably for certain situations, Simpson’s first two levels, ‘Perception’ and ‘Set’ are assumed or incorporated within Dave’s first ‘Imitation’ level. However, for young children, or for adults learning entirely new and challenging physical skills (which may require some additional attention to awareness and perception, and mental preparation), or for anyone learning skills which involve expression of feeling and emotion, then Simpson’s taxonomy could be more useful because it more specifically address these issues. Simpson’s version is particularly useful if taking adults out of their comfort zones, because it addresses sensory, perception (and by implication attitudinal) and preparation issues. For example anything fearsome or threatening, like emergency routines, conflict situations, tough physical tasks or conditions (Chapman, 2006). In Table 3 below, Dave’s taxonomy is placed alongside Harrow’s taxonomy and Simpson’s taxonomy.
Table 3. Psychomotor taxonomies. Harrow’s taxonomy. Anita Harrow (1972) proposed six learning levels: Reflex (objectives not usually written at this “low” level); Fundamental movements — applicable mostly to young children (crawl, run, jump, reach, change direction); Perceptual abilities (catch, write, balance, distinguish, manipulate); Physical abilities (stop, increase, move quickly, change, react); Skilled movements (play, hit, swim, dive, use); and Non-discursive communication (express, create, mime, design, interpret). Harrow’s taxonomy is organized according to the degree of co-ordination including involuntary responses as well as learned capabilities. Simple reflexes begin at the lowest level of the taxonomy, while complex neuromuscular co-ordination make up the highest levels (Seels and Glasgow, 1990). Reflex movements are actions elicited without learning in response to some stimuli. Examples include: flexion, extension, stretch, postural adjustments. Fundamental movements are inherent movement patterns which are formed by combining reflex movements and are the basis for complex skilled movements. Perceptual abilities enable adjustments to the environment based on interpretations of various stimuli. This involves visual, auditory, kinaesthetic, or tactile discrimination, and can include cognitive, as well as psychomotor, behaviour. Physical abilities require endurance, strength, vigor, and agility. Skilled movements are the result of the acquisition of a degree of efficiency when performing a simple task. Non-discursive communication ranges from facial expressions through to sophisticated choreographics. Harrow’s axonomy is concerned with the teaching of physical education and it has been argued hat her taxonomy does not adapt easily to the full range of psychomotor skills (Maclay, 1969; Maclay, 1974). However, it has been argued that Harrow’s taxonomy is particularly useful if you are developing skills which are intended ultimately to express, convey and/or influence feelings, because its final level specifically addresses the ranslation of bodily activities (movement, communication, body language, etc) into conveying feelings and emotion, including the effect on others. For example, public cneakino trainino iteelf and hich_-level nrecentation ckille (Chanman I0NN6)
Table 3. Psychomotor taxonomies. Harrow’s taxonomy. Anita Harrow (1972) proposed six learning levels: Reflex (objectives not usually written at this “low” level); Fundamental movements — applicable mostly to young children (crawl, run, jump, reach, change direction); Perceptual abilities (catch, write, balance, distinguish, manipulate); Physical abilities (stop, increase, move quickly, change, react); Skilled movements (play, hit, swim, dive, use); and Non-discursive communication (express, create, mime, design, interpret). Harrow’s taxonomy is organized according to the degree of co-ordination including involuntary responses as well as learned capabilities. Simple reflexes begin at the lowest level of the taxonomy, while complex neuromuscular co-ordination make up the highest levels (Seels and Glasgow, 1990). Reflex movements are actions elicited without learning in response to some stimuli. Examples include: flexion, extension, stretch, postural adjustments. Fundamental movements are inherent movement patterns which are formed by combining reflex movements and are the basis for complex skilled movements. Perceptual abilities enable adjustments to the environment based on interpretations of various stimuli. This involves visual, auditory, kinaesthetic, or tactile discrimination, and can include cognitive, as well as psychomotor, behaviour. Physical abilities require endurance, strength, vigor, and agility. Skilled movements are the result of the acquisition of a degree of efficiency when performing a simple task. Non-discursive communication ranges from facial expressions through to sophisticated choreographics. Harrow’s axonomy is concerned with the teaching of physical education and it has been argued hat her taxonomy does not adapt easily to the full range of psychomotor skills (Maclay, 1969; Maclay, 1974). However, it has been argued that Harrow’s taxonomy is particularly useful if you are developing skills which are intended ultimately to express, convey and/or influence feelings, because its final level specifically addresses the ranslation of bodily activities (movement, communication, body language, etc) into conveying feelings and emotion, including the effect on others. For example, public cneakino trainino iteelf and hich_-level nrecentation ckille (Chanman I0NN6)
Table 4. Psychomotor taxonomies. Examples of psychomotor skill taxonomies for specific skills. The development of taxonomies is closed related to the use of instructional objectives and the systematic design of instructional programs. Hence, in addition to taxonomies that are intended for general application, taxonomies have been developed for specific skills. Two such taxonomies are outlined here. Kaufman et al. (1987) formulated a taxonomy for surgical psychomotor skills. They broke down the skills required for surgical procedures into a number of obvious categories, including dissection, retraction and repair. These categories were further divided into subcategories, some related to the use of specific surgical instruments. In addition, they related psychomotor abilities and level of skill needed to categories. Ferris and Aziz (2005) proposed a psychomotor skills taxonomy Other general taxonomies for psychomotor skills. Several other taxonomies in the psychomotor domain have been developed. Five taxonomies that do not have a specific industry or trade focus are outlined here. Like the taxonomies described about, these have a general scope of application. Dawson (1998) has sought to develop a psychomotor extension to Bloom’s taxonomy comprising six levels: Observation, Trial, Repetition, Refinement, Consolidation, Mastery. Annette Freak and colleagues (2006) have proposed a six level hierarchy comprising: Masquerading, Imitating, Patterning, Mastering, Applying, Improvising. Krathwohl, one of the original contributors to Bloom’s taxonomy, proposed a hierarchical taxonomy comprising five levels: Nonlocomotor movements; Readiness; Movement skill development; Movement pattern development; Adapting and originating movement patterns. Maclay (1969) proposed a axonomy comprising six levels: Perception; Readiness, Guided response, Mechanism, Complex response with guidance, Complex response without guidance. Kathleen Perencevich and colleagues (2005) have proposed a four level taxonomy comprising: Acquisition, Automaticity, Transfer: near term, Transfer, far term. Among these four axonomies, Dawson’s has the benefit of using only self-explanatory everyday terms. ). In Table 4 below, these five taxonomies are placed alongside each other. taxonomies is closed related to the use of instructional objectives and the systematic
Table 4. Psychomotor taxonomies. Examples of psychomotor skill taxonomies for specific skills. The development of taxonomies is closed related to the use of instructional objectives and the systematic design of instructional programs. Hence, in addition to taxonomies that are intended for general application, taxonomies have been developed for specific skills. Two such taxonomies are outlined here. Kaufman et al. (1987) formulated a taxonomy for surgical psychomotor skills. They broke down the skills required for surgical procedures into a number of obvious categories, including dissection, retraction and repair. These categories were further divided into subcategories, some related to the use of specific surgical instruments. In addition, they related psychomotor abilities and level of skill needed to categories. Ferris and Aziz (2005) proposed a psychomotor skills taxonomy Other general taxonomies for psychomotor skills. Several other taxonomies in the psychomotor domain have been developed. Five taxonomies that do not have a specific industry or trade focus are outlined here. Like the taxonomies described about, these have a general scope of application. Dawson (1998) has sought to develop a psychomotor extension to Bloom’s taxonomy comprising six levels: Observation, Trial, Repetition, Refinement, Consolidation, Mastery. Annette Freak and colleagues (2006) have proposed a six level hierarchy comprising: Masquerading, Imitating, Patterning, Mastering, Applying, Improvising. Krathwohl, one of the original contributors to Bloom’s taxonomy, proposed a hierarchical taxonomy comprising five levels: Nonlocomotor movements; Readiness; Movement skill development; Movement pattern development; Adapting and originating movement patterns. Maclay (1969) proposed a axonomy comprising six levels: Perception; Readiness, Guided response, Mechanism, Complex response with guidance, Complex response without guidance. Kathleen Perencevich and colleagues (2005) have proposed a four level taxonomy comprising: Acquisition, Automaticity, Transfer: near term, Transfer, far term. Among these four axonomies, Dawson’s has the benefit of using only self-explanatory everyday terms. ). In Table 4 below, these five taxonomies are placed alongside each other. taxonomies is closed related to the use of instructional objectives and the systematic
Table 5. Three models. Task analysis is required to determine the psychomotor skills necessary. It has been argued that effective and efi ficient acquisition and performance of movement skills depends upon learners’ ability to focus their attention on selected aspects of the movement task (Shasby, 1984). Accordingly, the skills required for different tasks can be broken down into a numb into subcategories and related may be a need, to a greater er of categories. These categories can be further divided to the use of specific tools. Within each category, there or lesser extent, for the different types of psychomotot ability. A grading system for the level of skill needed in each category can be introduced. Also, each task can be given an overall difficulty rating. This could go beyond consideration of psychomotor skill requirement to include, for example, task planning, task safety. The results of task analyses provide a tangible reference fot instruction. Each analysis mu st be complete, presented in the proper amount of detail. with relationships among component skills and concepts clearly specified. It should identify when and under what circumstances each component will be performed. In Romiszowski (1999) argues that there are five stages of learning psychomotor skills. Stage 1 involves acquiring knowledge of what should be done, to what purpose, in what sequence, and by what means. Stage 2 involves the execution of the actions in a step- by-step manner, for each of the steps of the operation. Stage 3 involves transfer of control from the eyes to the other senses or to kinaesthetic control through muscular coordination. Stage 4 involves the automatization of the skill. Stage 5 involves generalization of the skill to a continually greater range of application situations. Perencevich, Seidel and Kett (2005) argue that Romiszowski’s model suggests three basic steps in the overall instructional process: Imparting knowledge content; Imparting the basic skills; Developing proficiency. In Table 5 below, Fitt and Posner’s model is placed alongside Adler’s model and Romiszowski’s model. argued that effective and efficient acquisition and performance of movement skills
Table 5. Three models. Task analysis is required to determine the psychomotor skills necessary. It has been argued that effective and efi ficient acquisition and performance of movement skills depends upon learners’ ability to focus their attention on selected aspects of the movement task (Shasby, 1984). Accordingly, the skills required for different tasks can be broken down into a numb into subcategories and related may be a need, to a greater er of categories. These categories can be further divided to the use of specific tools. Within each category, there or lesser extent, for the different types of psychomotot ability. A grading system for the level of skill needed in each category can be introduced. Also, each task can be given an overall difficulty rating. This could go beyond consideration of psychomotor skill requirement to include, for example, task planning, task safety. The results of task analyses provide a tangible reference fot instruction. Each analysis mu st be complete, presented in the proper amount of detail. with relationships among component skills and concepts clearly specified. It should identify when and under what circumstances each component will be performed. In Romiszowski (1999) argues that there are five stages of learning psychomotor skills. Stage 1 involves acquiring knowledge of what should be done, to what purpose, in what sequence, and by what means. Stage 2 involves the execution of the actions in a step- by-step manner, for each of the steps of the operation. Stage 3 involves transfer of control from the eyes to the other senses or to kinaesthetic control through muscular coordination. Stage 4 involves the automatization of the skill. Stage 5 involves generalization of the skill to a continually greater range of application situations. Perencevich, Seidel and Kett (2005) argue that Romiszowski’s model suggests three basic steps in the overall instructional process: Imparting knowledge content; Imparting the basic skills; Developing proficiency. In Table 5 below, Fitt and Posner’s model is placed alongside Adler’s model and Romiszowski’s model. argued that effective and efficient acquisition and performance of movement skills
Network Centric Manufacturing Demonstration Alotainric Cantricn Onaratinne SAITO) JAcecamhbhiy & Onolittvy. Toachnnainny For example, network communicates location and process requirements to “smart” hand tools. Knowledge of process requirements, or task requirements, could otherwise be par of the skill knowledge that a person would have to learn. Further the matching of “as- defined” to “‘as-performed” process or task, could otherwise be part of the augmented feedback provided by a human instructor. Boeing seeks to create intelligent tooling tha no longer requires operators to set limits or torques for a specific operation. I successful, this would enable a person without relevant skill knowledge to carry out a task with the same accuracy as a person with skill knowledge, and perhaps with greater consistency.
Network Centric Manufacturing Demonstration Alotainric Cantricn Onaratinne SAITO) JAcecamhbhiy & Onolittvy. Toachnnainny For example, network communicates location and process requirements to “smart” hand tools. Knowledge of process requirements, or task requirements, could otherwise be par of the skill knowledge that a person would have to learn. Further the matching of “as- defined” to “‘as-performed” process or task, could otherwise be part of the augmented feedback provided by a human instructor. Boeing seeks to create intelligent tooling tha no longer requires operators to set limits or torques for a specific operation. I successful, this would enable a person without relevant skill knowledge to carry out a task with the same accuracy as a person with skill knowledge, and perhaps with greater consistency.
example, printers present instructions whenever a problem occurs they display just-in- time instructions for immediate assistance. However, such instructions are mostly static and unaware of the state of the environment and the user. By contrast, ubiquitous computing has the potential to connect the virtual world to the real world and provide opportunities for proactive, unobtrusive, and context-aware system which delivers just- in-time instructions during an assembly task. Three levels of instructions have been proposed. First, full-walk-through — for beginners who need full guidance. Second, assistance-on-demand for users who have some expertise and prefer to start without any instructions. Such users choose their own preferred order of performing actions but they know that the they have the possibility to inquire instructions at any point. Third, rescue-from-trap is designed for users who actually might know how to solve a certain ask. They are experts and do not want to be annoyed with any guidance at all. Users will receive instruction if they break an important safety rule. Users also have the possibility to ask for assistance, if they feel they cannot proceed on their own (Antifakos et al., 2002). An example of Proactive Instructions is shown in Figure 9 (Michalles et al., 2004).
example, printers present instructions whenever a problem occurs they display just-in- time instructions for immediate assistance. However, such instructions are mostly static and unaware of the state of the environment and the user. By contrast, ubiquitous computing has the potential to connect the virtual world to the real world and provide opportunities for proactive, unobtrusive, and context-aware system which delivers just- in-time instructions during an assembly task. Three levels of instructions have been proposed. First, full-walk-through — for beginners who need full guidance. Second, assistance-on-demand for users who have some expertise and prefer to start without any instructions. Such users choose their own preferred order of performing actions but they know that the they have the possibility to inquire instructions at any point. Third, rescue-from-trap is designed for users who actually might know how to solve a certain ask. They are experts and do not want to be annoyed with any guidance at all. Users will receive instruction if they break an important safety rule. Users also have the possibility to ask for assistance, if they feel they cannot proceed on their own (Antifakos et al., 2002). An example of Proactive Instructions is shown in Figure 9 (Michalles et al., 2004).
laptop computer; subnotebook; personal digital assistant; portable data terminal (PDT); mobile data terminal (MDT); tablet personal computer; smartphone.
laptop computer; subnotebook; personal digital assistant; portable data terminal (PDT); mobile data terminal (MDT); tablet personal computer; smartphone.
Figure 11. Example of wearable computing. (Source: see page 83.)
Figure 11. Example of wearable computing. (Source: see page 83.)
Haptic augmented reality involves reproducing the sense of touch when interacting with virtual objects displayed in an Augmented Reality environment. Collaborative haptic applications are possible. As shown in Figure 13 below, haptic augmented reality environments have been used to design, for example, cranial implants (Scharver et al., 2004).
Haptic augmented reality involves reproducing the sense of touch when interacting with virtual objects displayed in an Augmented Reality environment. Collaborative haptic applications are possible. As shown in Figure 13 below, haptic augmented reality environments have been used to design, for example, cranial implants (Scharver et al., 2004).
Figure 13. Haptic augmented reality.
Figure 13. Haptic augmented reality.
romt-o1-Use Intormation Kesources support users 1n performing a task, providing access to required information and alternative forms of knowledge presentation through he use of text, images and interactive data presentation. A Point-of-Use Information source is used when the learning content is too extensive to retain mentally. Instead of raining staff to carry large numbers of tasks, some of which they may never carry out, Point-of-Use Information Resources, such as an e-manual can provide all o f the nformation required directly, at the time it is required for a particular task. This means hat the user only makes reference to required information as and when it is needed - nstead of overloading themselves with irrelevant information that may never be used. Point-of-Use Information Resources have been developed by the John Deere com pany Trees, 2006). This company is a world leader in agricultural, construction, forestry and srounds care equipment. As shown in Figure 14 below, John Deere uses graphic views © communication important information. to communication important information. The whole ethos of Point-of-Use Information Resources revolves around accessing the information when and where it is required. Therefore, the technology that is used must lend itself to an often challenging environment. These challenges can be include dirt, noise, lack of a network, need to regularly update the content. In the case of the United Kingdom’s Command, Control, Communications, Computers and Intelligence network capability, great emphasis has been placed on the use of e-technologies to provide the solutions. Although the solutions use e-technologies, they are not always running over a network or intranet, as the networks available are used for more important information.
romt-o1-Use Intormation Kesources support users 1n performing a task, providing access to required information and alternative forms of knowledge presentation through he use of text, images and interactive data presentation. A Point-of-Use Information source is used when the learning content is too extensive to retain mentally. Instead of raining staff to carry large numbers of tasks, some of which they may never carry out, Point-of-Use Information Resources, such as an e-manual can provide all o f the nformation required directly, at the time it is required for a particular task. This means hat the user only makes reference to required information as and when it is needed - nstead of overloading themselves with irrelevant information that may never be used. Point-of-Use Information Resources have been developed by the John Deere com pany Trees, 2006). This company is a world leader in agricultural, construction, forestry and srounds care equipment. As shown in Figure 14 below, John Deere uses graphic views © communication important information. to communication important information. The whole ethos of Point-of-Use Information Resources revolves around accessing the information when and where it is required. Therefore, the technology that is used must lend itself to an often challenging environment. These challenges can be include dirt, noise, lack of a network, need to regularly update the content. In the case of the United Kingdom’s Command, Control, Communications, Computers and Intelligence network capability, great emphasis has been placed on the use of e-technologies to provide the solutions. Although the solutions use e-technologies, they are not always running over a network or intranet, as the networks available are used for more important information.
Figure 15. Hands free wireless information delivery. The solutions are delivered on CD-ROM or on laptops running a personal web server, with the future possibility of loading them on to networked systems if the need arises (Woodford, 2004). As shown in Figure 15 below, point-of-Use Information can be delivered through hands free wireless technology (Trees, 2006).
Figure 15. Hands free wireless information delivery. The solutions are delivered on CD-ROM or on laptops running a personal web server, with the future possibility of loading them on to networked systems if the need arises (Woodford, 2004). As shown in Figure 15 below, point-of-Use Information can be delivered through hands free wireless technology (Trees, 2006).
Table 8. Media in new methods for information delivery and training. Different mixes of media can make information required to perform a task easil available, thus reducing the need for prior training. The user decides when and wher what information is needed and is driven by their need to complete the task. Henc« removing the need for instructor led training. By replacing formal training, it also ha: the benefit to the user of putting fewer demands on their memory. More and mor educational material is becoming openly available free on line as so calle OpenCourseWare. Further, attempts are underway to try to establish a commot technical framework for computer and Web-based learning that fosters the creation o reusable learning content as “learning objects” (Wisher, 2006).
Table 8. Media in new methods for information delivery and training. Different mixes of media can make information required to perform a task easil available, thus reducing the need for prior training. The user decides when and wher what information is needed and is driven by their need to complete the task. Henc« removing the need for instructor led training. By replacing formal training, it also ha: the benefit to the user of putting fewer demands on their memory. More and mor educational material is becoming openly available free on line as so calle OpenCourseWare. Further, attempts are underway to try to establish a commot technical framework for computer and Web-based learning that fosters the creation o reusable learning content as “learning objects” (Wisher, 2006).
Figure 16. Virtual training circa 1997. (Source: see page 83.)
Figure 16. Virtual training circa 1997. (Source: see page 83.)
Figure 17. Virtual reality training circa 2007. (Source: see page 83.)
Figure 17. Virtual reality training circa 2007. (Source: see page 83.)
This advanced simulation-based intelligent tutoring system controls the ship’s weapons and sensors and directs the movements of the ship, other support vessels, and aircraft The TAO monitors the movements and actions of ships, planes, missiles, and submarines in the region. The TAO integrates this information in real time to form dynamic tactical picture, select appropriate responses, and issue orders. he region and provides rapid access to the ship’s sensor, weapon, and utoring system evaluates the entire sequence of student actions detected according to sophisticated, temporal pattern-matching algori based intelligent tutoring system (ITS) enables students to act as TAOs in tactica simulations. The simulation’s graphical user interface displays a geographical map o functions (Stottler et al., 2007). After the student completes a scenario, the intelligen The simulation- communication o infer tactica principles that the student applied correctly or failed to apply. These principles are hms defined by performance, the software can make inferences about each particular student’s strengths
This advanced simulation-based intelligent tutoring system controls the ship’s weapons and sensors and directs the movements of the ship, other support vessels, and aircraft The TAO monitors the movements and actions of ships, planes, missiles, and submarines in the region. The TAO integrates this information in real time to form dynamic tactical picture, select appropriate responses, and issue orders. he region and provides rapid access to the ship’s sensor, weapon, and utoring system evaluates the entire sequence of student actions detected according to sophisticated, temporal pattern-matching algori based intelligent tutoring system (ITS) enables students to act as TAOs in tactica simulations. The simulation’s graphical user interface displays a geographical map o functions (Stottler et al., 2007). After the student completes a scenario, the intelligen The simulation- communication o infer tactica principles that the student applied correctly or failed to apply. These principles are hms defined by performance, the software can make inferences about each particular student’s strengths
Intelligent tutoring systems often include speech-enabled interfaces. In this case for example, the speech-enabled graphical user interface more accurately represents how a TAO actually works on board a Navy ship by enabling the student to converse with simulated crew members to issue commands and receive information. Also, this advanced intelligent tutoring system employs intelligent agents, rather than instructors, to play the roles of simulated crew members. This reduces the staff overhead required to conduct effective TAO training. Further, the system automatically evaluates the student’s performance in real-time and infer tactical principles that were applied correctly, or not applied, so it can coach the student during each scenario. Overall, applications simulation-based intelligent tutoring systems complement traditional classroom or computer-based training by enabling students to practice the application of concepts and principles within realistically-complex scenarios. The technologies employed by the TAO training system are especially useful for developing interactive simulation-based training systems that run multi-agent and/or real-time scenarios for military training, computer games. As illustrated in Figure 20 below, there are lower cost options for intelligent tutoring systems. Their interfaces can be viewed through single screens during both their configuration and their use.
Intelligent tutoring systems often include speech-enabled interfaces. In this case for example, the speech-enabled graphical user interface more accurately represents how a TAO actually works on board a Navy ship by enabling the student to converse with simulated crew members to issue commands and receive information. Also, this advanced intelligent tutoring system employs intelligent agents, rather than instructors, to play the roles of simulated crew members. This reduces the staff overhead required to conduct effective TAO training. Further, the system automatically evaluates the student’s performance in real-time and infer tactical principles that were applied correctly, or not applied, so it can coach the student during each scenario. Overall, applications simulation-based intelligent tutoring systems complement traditional classroom or computer-based training by enabling students to practice the application of concepts and principles within realistically-complex scenarios. The technologies employed by the TAO training system are especially useful for developing interactive simulation-based training systems that run multi-agent and/or real-time scenarios for military training, computer games. As illustrated in Figure 20 below, there are lower cost options for intelligent tutoring systems. Their interfaces can be viewed through single screens during both their configuration and their use.
ZAULUINALCU PIUCESS UF ASSUCIAUIIS SCHIAMUIC FOVPICSCMUAUUOMS Call HIVOIVEe HUMIC TUUS interrelated analyses. There are two general approaches to these analyses: (i) grammar-based and (ii) classification. Each has its relative strengths and weaknesses. In particular, grammar-based approaches need more expertise but less training data. By contrast, classification approaches need less expertise but more training data. This is because human expertise is replaced by machine learning. As illustrated in Figure 22 below, there are numerous methods/tools available for analyses. These are informed by ontology. Syntactic analyses of communications can often involve parsing. A parser is a program that assigns syntactic structure. Parsing is a method: a parser is a tool. A parser can take a stream of words and give it syntactic structure. Parsers can identify, for example, noun phrases and verb phrases. Figure 22. Potential methods/tools used in associating semantic representations.
ZAULUINALCU PIUCESS UF ASSUCIAUIIS SCHIAMUIC FOVPICSCMUAUUOMS Call HIVOIVEe HUMIC TUUS interrelated analyses. There are two general approaches to these analyses: (i) grammar-based and (ii) classification. Each has its relative strengths and weaknesses. In particular, grammar-based approaches need more expertise but less training data. By contrast, classification approaches need less expertise but more training data. This is because human expertise is replaced by machine learning. As illustrated in Figure 22 below, there are numerous methods/tools available for analyses. These are informed by ontology. Syntactic analyses of communications can often involve parsing. A parser is a program that assigns syntactic structure. Parsing is a method: a parser is a tool. A parser can take a stream of words and give it syntactic structure. Parsers can identify, for example, noun phrases and verb phrases. Figure 22. Potential methods/tools used in associating semantic representations.
for tutoring. Further, the scientist will need to learn about the specific application domain. For example, when developing an Intelligent Tutor for ship handling, the scientist will need to learn about ship handling. Furthermore, the scientist will need to learn about the communication procedures, jargon, prosody etc., which are prevalent in ship handling. In addition, the computational semantics scientists will need to learn about the working of devices that will be used in the application. For example, devices for speech recognition, speech synthesis, visualization etc. Computational semantics scientists represent what they learn using block diagrams, flow charts etc. As il in Figure 25, they will model the underlying activity that is to be engaged in by the application. Also, they will model the system, and component devices, tha interacted with during that activity. Moreover, computational semantics scientist wil model how communication processes will embody the interactions involved ustrated users 0 will be in tha activity. All together this enables the formulation of preliminary systems arc for the particular application. hitecture Figure 25. Initial modelling in development of computational semantics applications. Computational semantics applications can be developed through configurable modular systems architectures. This enables initial components to be developed concurrently by different contributors. Further, new components can be added as the scope of an application develops. Moreover, components can be enhanced over time as computational semantics advances and/or greater resources become available. For example, the Conversational Helper for Automotive Tasks (CHAT) described by Weng et al. (2006) has a modular architecture that has facilitated its development from a music selection application to an application encompassing restaurant finding and vehicle navigation. It is important to note, that different systems architectures can be developed to enable the realization of different strategies. For example, the strategy for an in cat dialogue system may be to associate a semantic representation to all of the communications which it encounters. By contrast, the strategy for an intelligent meeting modular systems architectures. This enables initial components to be developed
for tutoring. Further, the scientist will need to learn about the specific application domain. For example, when developing an Intelligent Tutor for ship handling, the scientist will need to learn about ship handling. Furthermore, the scientist will need to learn about the communication procedures, jargon, prosody etc., which are prevalent in ship handling. In addition, the computational semantics scientists will need to learn about the working of devices that will be used in the application. For example, devices for speech recognition, speech synthesis, visualization etc. Computational semantics scientists represent what they learn using block diagrams, flow charts etc. As il in Figure 25, they will model the underlying activity that is to be engaged in by the application. Also, they will model the system, and component devices, tha interacted with during that activity. Moreover, computational semantics scientist wil model how communication processes will embody the interactions involved ustrated users 0 will be in tha activity. All together this enables the formulation of preliminary systems arc for the particular application. hitecture Figure 25. Initial modelling in development of computational semantics applications. Computational semantics applications can be developed through configurable modular systems architectures. This enables initial components to be developed concurrently by different contributors. Further, new components can be added as the scope of an application develops. Moreover, components can be enhanced over time as computational semantics advances and/or greater resources become available. For example, the Conversational Helper for Automotive Tasks (CHAT) described by Weng et al. (2006) has a modular architecture that has facilitated its development from a music selection application to an application encompassing restaurant finding and vehicle navigation. It is important to note, that different systems architectures can be developed to enable the realization of different strategies. For example, the strategy for an in cat dialogue system may be to associate a semantic representation to all of the communications which it encounters. By contrast, the strategy for an intelligent meeting modular systems architectures. This enables initial components to be developed
Figure 27. Computational semantics — in the future? diagram includes the new directions for both fundamental and applied research in
Figure 27. Computational semantics — in the future? diagram includes the new directions for both fundamental and applied research in
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Computational SemanticsReal-Time Communication
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