Academia.eduAcademia.edu

Figure 5 – uploaded by Michelle Tomlinson

See full PDFdownloadDownload figure
Figure 1. Author’s conception of how his research is related to the existing literature.

Figure 1 Author’s conception of how his research is related to the existing literature.

Related Figures (41)

Research findings from the Social Play Record (SPR) and Scale II: Musical Communicativenes (Nordoff and Robbins) Table 2 highlights the significant methods of data collection and data analysis in the current study.
Research findings from the Social Play Record (SPR) and Scale II: Musical Communicativenes (Nordoff and Robbins) Table 2 highlights the significant methods of data collection and data analysis in the current study.
RES eee Se ae gh ee ee ae ge Se Me hae ere Table 3 shows a somewhat more contentious application of the framework and in many ways this represents the pragmatic compromise student-centred curriculums require. Within my school context, many parents and students value the standards and certifications associated with AMEB music theory levels and as a consequence, all elective music classes (Years 9-11) participate in selected aspects of AMEB theory grade levels as well as traditional aural development activities. Although many students recognise the significance and advantage of notation literacy skills, few are intrinsically motivated by the rigour and application required for acquiring these skills. In this example, melody composition and music theory are combined in an effort to connect theory with creativity. Formative and summative assessments are presented within a structured curriculum document in which theory text book chapter levels and key questions are identified. The regular melody-writing component and celebratory composition performance provides students with the opportunity to create a less structured notation based composition that that demonstrates their evolving understanding of music notation literacy.
RES eee Se ae gh ee ee ae ge Se Me hae ere Table 3 shows a somewhat more contentious application of the framework and in many ways this represents the pragmatic compromise student-centred curriculums require. Within my school context, many parents and students value the standards and certifications associated with AMEB music theory levels and as a consequence, all elective music classes (Years 9-11) participate in selected aspects of AMEB theory grade levels as well as traditional aural development activities. Although many students recognise the significance and advantage of notation literacy skills, few are intrinsically motivated by the rigour and application required for acquiring these skills. In this example, melody composition and music theory are combined in an effort to connect theory with creativity. Formative and summative assessments are presented within a structured curriculum document in which theory text book chapter levels and key questions are identified. The regular melody-writing component and celebratory composition performance provides students with the opportunity to create a less structured notation based composition that that demonstrates their evolving understanding of music notation literacy.
EE Table 2 outlines a designed Music Learning Experience that I recently conducted with my school’s Concert Choir. Within this activity, the choir workshopped an original composition created by myself (Click Goes the Shears) and through a process of group feedback, the composition evolved to suit the strengths of the ensemble. In addition to this piece, a choreographed ‘Glee’ style performance of “Like A Prayer’ was also constructed to support the choral performance. (See references for YouTube links.) Student’s participation in this choral experience was voluntary and opportunities were provided for students to influence and contribute to the learning experience through: opting in or out of the competition component, repertoire selection, suggestions for musical expression, sectional leadership during rehearsals and performance choreography.
EE Table 2 outlines a designed Music Learning Experience that I recently conducted with my school’s Concert Choir. Within this activity, the choir workshopped an original composition created by myself (Click Goes the Shears) and through a process of group feedback, the composition evolved to suit the strengths of the ensemble. In addition to this piece, a choreographed ‘Glee’ style performance of “Like A Prayer’ was also constructed to support the choral performance. (See references for YouTube links.) Student’s participation in this choral experience was voluntary and opportunities were provided for students to influence and contribute to the learning experience through: opting in or out of the competition component, repertoire selection, suggestions for musical expression, sectional leadership during rehearsals and performance choreography.
While data on individual advantage provides significant new information for mapping the kinds of knowledge being accessed, community advantage is something else again. This connects with Campbell’s (1998) reflection on facilitating personal development through membership of a musical community and the need to take responsibility for the greater good. There is also connection with Jones’ (2010) view of community music Lindsay talks of decision-making, weighing the positives and negatives of the challenge. After some twelve years of singing, choir membership forms a significant part of her life. The comment is best understood as a personal comment on her own learning through participatory performance. While it includes reference to the other participants and the collective response to challenge, she did not intentionally take on the role of spokesperson. Her comment draws attention to individual and collective learning.
While data on individual advantage provides significant new information for mapping the kinds of knowledge being accessed, community advantage is something else again. This connects with Campbell’s (1998) reflection on facilitating personal development through membership of a musical community and the need to take responsibility for the greater good. There is also connection with Jones’ (2010) view of community music Lindsay talks of decision-making, weighing the positives and negatives of the challenge. After some twelve years of singing, choir membership forms a significant part of her life. The comment is best understood as a personal comment on her own learning through participatory performance. While it includes reference to the other participants and the collective response to challenge, she did not intentionally take on the role of spokesperson. Her comment draws attention to individual and collective learning.
The theme of nurture was strong. Research has confirmed the successful use of communal music making after trauma (Zubovic, 2003). In a similar way, this study found that communal singing experiences have benefits in general well-being and support. Both choir directors commented on the way the entity of the choir may vary as the lives of the participants change. “‘Meryn’ (Director of Choir A) spoke of the progression over 13 years that she has seen:
The theme of nurture was strong. Research has confirmed the successful use of communal music making after trauma (Zubovic, 2003). In a similar way, this study found that communal singing experiences have benefits in general well-being and support. Both choir directors commented on the way the entity of the choir may vary as the lives of the participants change. “‘Meryn’ (Director of Choir A) spoke of the progression over 13 years that she has seen:
The Koelsch and Siebel model (Figure 2) is known as the Neurocognitive Model of Music Perception and originated at the Max Planck Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Sciences in Germany. This model represents some similar concepts to the Musical Lexicon model in terms of the initial processing of elements (pitch, rhythm, structure, timbre). In a slightly different interpretation of a central lexicon on knowledge this model refers to the dissection, comparison and reconstruction of the music in order to add or change the student’s general musical understanding. The singing, tapping and speaking element of the Musical Lexicon model is referred to as vitalisation, meaning the physical reaction to the music. Koelsch and Siebel add an additional element of premotor action affecting the immune system. This highlights the positive physiological effects of music on bolstering the immune system and essentially improving the listener’s wellbeing. Se i ee: ee a ne ay a a ee a ee Se a ae a |
The Koelsch and Siebel model (Figure 2) is known as the Neurocognitive Model of Music Perception and originated at the Max Planck Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Sciences in Germany. This model represents some similar concepts to the Musical Lexicon model in terms of the initial processing of elements (pitch, rhythm, structure, timbre). In a slightly different interpretation of a central lexicon on knowledge this model refers to the dissection, comparison and reconstruction of the music in order to add or change the student’s general musical understanding. The singing, tapping and speaking element of the Musical Lexicon model is referred to as vitalisation, meaning the physical reaction to the music. Koelsch and Siebel add an additional element of premotor action affecting the immune system. This highlights the positive physiological effects of music on bolstering the immune system and essentially improving the listener’s wellbeing. Se i ee: ee a ne ay a a ee a ee Se a ae a |
Neurocognitive Model of Music Perception (Koelsch & Siebel, 2005)
Neurocognitive Model of Music Perception (Koelsch & Siebel, 2005)
Figure 2b. Model for systems for trust in middle and secondary schools (Tarter, Sabo & Hoy, 1995, p. 43) However this body of research also suggests that trust between the principal and faculty members is not co dependent in middle and secondary schooling: There are some debates about the second model (see Hoy & Kupersmith, 1985; W.K. Hoy & M. Tschannen- Moran, 2003; Kochanek, 2005; Tschannen-Moran, 2004; Wolfe, 2007), but all the literature mentioned earlier confirms the primary school model. Consequently my own research focuses on middle and secondary school faculties.
Figure 2b. Model for systems for trust in middle and secondary schools (Tarter, Sabo & Hoy, 1995, p. 43) However this body of research also suggests that trust between the principal and faculty members is not co dependent in middle and secondary schooling: There are some debates about the second model (see Hoy & Kupersmith, 1985; W.K. Hoy & M. Tschannen- Moran, 2003; Kochanek, 2005; Tschannen-Moran, 2004; Wolfe, 2007), but all the literature mentioned earlier confirms the primary school model. Consequently my own research focuses on middle and secondary school faculties.
re -_ I - Typically these studies examine how trust is created and sustained within a faculty team and whether school Principals impact upon the dynamics of trust (Bryk & Schneider, 2002; Kochanek, 2005; Tschannen- Moran, 2004; Wolfe, 2007). This question remains unresolved, but much of the research (Herriott & Firestone, 1984; Hoy et al., 1992; Tarter et al., 1989; Tschannen-Moran, Hoy, & Hoy, 1998) suggests that trust in the principal and trust between faculty members are linked in primary schools:
re -_ I - Typically these studies examine how trust is created and sustained within a faculty team and whether school Principals impact upon the dynamics of trust (Bryk & Schneider, 2002; Kochanek, 2005; Tschannen- Moran, 2004; Wolfe, 2007). This question remains unresolved, but much of the research (Herriott & Firestone, 1984; Hoy et al., 1992; Tarter et al., 1989; Tschannen-Moran, Hoy, & Hoy, 1998) suggests that trust in the principal and trust between faculty members are linked in primary schools:
Table 1: Participant information overview
Table 1: Participant information overview
Findings The participants posted on the forum a further 11 issues that were of concern to them and these were added to the existing list of five questions drawn from the literature. The resulting 16 issues were discussed online and at the close of the forum teachers were asked to email their thoughts on the effectiveness of the study to the researcher to allow a fine-tuning of the discussion forum. Data gathered for this study came from the profile questionnaires, the transcripts of the forum discussions and emailed correspondence between the participants and researcher. The data was coded for musical/pedagogical themes and types of discourse using the metadata of the web forum itself to sort the themes into categories.
Findings The participants posted on the forum a further 11 issues that were of concern to them and these were added to the existing list of five questions drawn from the literature. The resulting 16 issues were discussed online and at the close of the forum teachers were asked to email their thoughts on the effectiveness of the study to the researcher to allow a fine-tuning of the discussion forum. Data gathered for this study came from the profile questionnaires, the transcripts of the forum discussions and emailed correspondence between the participants and researcher. The data was coded for musical/pedagogical themes and types of discourse using the metadata of the web forum itself to sort the themes into categories.
The issue of facilitating student musical independence became an over arching theme that appeared in various discussions throughout the forum and also appeared in the literature. This theme is notable because whereas the expectation at a tertiary level is for students to develop musical independence for themselves, the onus appears to fall to the teacher to scaffold this in school-aged students. This theme raised further issues of modeling, expression, interpretation, experimentation and inspiration. The question was first raised by band director and piano teacher, Keaton Fan: i a, i ea ey we ee ee, a ee, ee Ly ey : ee. ey as, ern f.
The issue of facilitating student musical independence became an over arching theme that appeared in various discussions throughout the forum and also appeared in the literature. This theme is notable because whereas the expectation at a tertiary level is for students to develop musical independence for themselves, the onus appears to fall to the teacher to scaffold this in school-aged students. This theme raised further issues of modeling, expression, interpretation, experimentation and inspiration. The question was first raised by band director and piano teacher, Keaton Fan: i a, i ea ey we ee ee, a ee, ee Ly ey : ee. ey as, ern f.
Figure 2. Frequency distribution of highest ranked learning styles Analysis 1 Of particular interest was the spread of highest ranked learning styles for all subjects from Analysis 1 (Figure 2).
Figure 2. Frequency distribution of highest ranked learning styles Analysis 1 Of particular interest was the spread of highest ranked learning styles for all subjects from Analysis 1 (Figure 2).
Figures 2 and 3 revealed many insights into the dynamic of the cohort and vital information for the Year 6 Band program. The main form of instruction in the Year 6 Band program is Auditory and Visual. That being stated, these two methods were clearly not preferred by the students in the study. However the forms of interaction by students carrying out the work in the program are largely Group and Tactile actions. Figure 3. Frequency distribution of Highest ranked learning styles, female versus male subjects.
Figures 2 and 3 revealed many insights into the dynamic of the cohort and vital information for the Year 6 Band program. The main form of instruction in the Year 6 Band program is Auditory and Visual. That being stated, these two methods were clearly not preferred by the students in the study. However the forms of interaction by students carrying out the work in the program are largely Group and Tactile actions. Figure 3. Frequency distribution of Highest ranked learning styles, female versus male subjects.
To interpret the above, the student profiles can be read both horizontally and vertically. The levels of information occur in the following order:
To interpret the above, the student profiles can be read both horizontally and vertically. The levels of information occur in the following order:
Figure 1: Self-concept as an umbrella term (Lawrence, 1988, p. 2). Understanding the concept of the self has been central to artistic and academic endeavours in society since at least the Middle Ages. According to Beane and Lipka (1984), the idea of seriously trying to know and understand oneself can be traced back many centuries in the history of art, music, literature, and other areas of the humanities. During the twentieth century, study of the self was the subject of increasing academic scrutiny, with William James’ (1890) works being widely acknowledged as the springboard from which scientific interest in this area derived (Blaskovich & Tomaka, 1991; Elliott & Dweck, 2005; Wylie, 1974). lew fants: Ak fhe Alen lxxowennoent al weestte eal ener! Fav werfiodocles seepeaeneecceeeell excnesenmr: thee: avocrcwnl
Figure 1: Self-concept as an umbrella term (Lawrence, 1988, p. 2). Understanding the concept of the self has been central to artistic and academic endeavours in society since at least the Middle Ages. According to Beane and Lipka (1984), the idea of seriously trying to know and understand oneself can be traced back many centuries in the history of art, music, literature, and other areas of the humanities. During the twentieth century, study of the self was the subject of increasing academic scrutiny, with William James’ (1890) works being widely acknowledged as the springboard from which scientific interest in this area derived (Blaskovich & Tomaka, 1991; Elliott & Dweck, 2005; Wylie, 1974). lew fants: Ak fhe Alen lxxowennoent al weestte eal ener! Fav werfiodocles seepeaeneecceeeell excnesenmr: thee: avocrcwnl
Figure 2: Diagram of self-efficacy and self-regulation parameters. Zimmerman (2000) further supports the importance of self-efficacy beliefs in learning and suggests that self-efficacy beliefs play a causal role in students’ achievement and are predictive of students’ effort and persistence. Bandura (1997) asserts that “perceived self efficacy contributes to performance accomplishments over and above the effects of skill development’ (p. 102), thus highlighting the importance of self-efficacy beliefs within the learning process. In reviewing research into self-efficacy, Zimmerman (2000) concludes that According to Bandura (1997), “efficacy beliefs affect thought processes, the level and persistency of motivation, and affective states, all of which are important contributors to the types of performances that are realized” (p. 39). A comparison of the likely outcomes based on efficacy beliefs as outlined by Bandura (1997) is shown in Table 1. This comparison highlights the potential impact of efficacy beliefs on outcomes, with compelling implications for education. self-efficacy self-reculation beliefs strategies
Figure 2: Diagram of self-efficacy and self-regulation parameters. Zimmerman (2000) further supports the importance of self-efficacy beliefs in learning and suggests that self-efficacy beliefs play a causal role in students’ achievement and are predictive of students’ effort and persistence. Bandura (1997) asserts that “perceived self efficacy contributes to performance accomplishments over and above the effects of skill development’ (p. 102), thus highlighting the importance of self-efficacy beliefs within the learning process. In reviewing research into self-efficacy, Zimmerman (2000) concludes that According to Bandura (1997), “efficacy beliefs affect thought processes, the level and persistency of motivation, and affective states, all of which are important contributors to the types of performances that are realized” (p. 39). A comparison of the likely outcomes based on efficacy beliefs as outlined by Bandura (1997) is shown in Table 1. This comparison highlights the potential impact of efficacy beliefs on outcomes, with compelling implications for education. self-efficacy self-reculation beliefs strategies
Self-regulation refers to the selected processes or strategies which one uses to achieve a particulai task. Zimmerman and Kitsantas (2005) identify a rich variety of self-regulatory processes: goal setting, task strategies, imagery, time management, self-monitoring, self evaluation, environmental structuring, and helf seeking. These self-regulatory processes are not a fixed characteristic of individuals (McPherson & Zimmerman, 2002), but can be learned and acquired. Baum, Owen and Oreck (1997) lament that
Self-regulation refers to the selected processes or strategies which one uses to achieve a particulai task. Zimmerman and Kitsantas (2005) identify a rich variety of self-regulatory processes: goal setting, task strategies, imagery, time management, self-monitoring, self evaluation, environmental structuring, and helf seeking. These self-regulatory processes are not a fixed characteristic of individuals (McPherson & Zimmerman, 2002), but can be learned and acquired. Baum, Owen and Oreck (1997) lament that
Figure 1: Pauline Oliveros “Bye Bye Butterfly” sonogram detail A sonogram can also be used to graphically illustrate standard delay parameters. A sonogram shows the density of audio frequencies (vertical axis) measured over time (horizontal axis). For example, Figure 1 is a 23 second section of the work “Bye Bye Butterfly” by Pauline Oliveros (1965) made using the software application, Max/MSP.
Figure 1: Pauline Oliveros “Bye Bye Butterfly” sonogram detail A sonogram can also be used to graphically illustrate standard delay parameters. A sonogram shows the density of audio frequencies (vertical axis) measured over time (horizontal axis). For example, Figure 1 is a 23 second section of the work “Bye Bye Butterfly” by Pauline Oliveros (1965) made using the software application, Max/MSP.
Figure 2: Sound box representation for “Montreal” by Autechre (1993), front view Figures 2 and 3 show an example of the visual depiction of Moore’s sound box for the work “Montreal” by the band Autechre (1994). This sound box was made in the virtual world, Second Life (an online 3D immersive environment), and shows the basic placement of sounds within a stereo field (x axis), approximate frequency range (y axis) and perceived depth (z axis).
Figure 2: Sound box representation for “Montreal” by Autechre (1993), front view Figures 2 and 3 show an example of the visual depiction of Moore’s sound box for the work “Montreal” by the band Autechre (1994). This sound box was made in the virtual world, Second Life (an online 3D immersive environment), and shows the basic placement of sounds within a stereo field (x axis), approximate frequency range (y axis) and perceived depth (z axis).
Figure 3: Sound box representation for “Montreal” by Autechre (1993), side view
Figure 3: Sound box representation for “Montreal” by Autechre (1993), side view
Figure 4: Graphic Form Chart for “Blue Monday” by New Order (1983)
Figure 4: Graphic Form Chart for “Blue Monday” by New Order (1983)
The questionnaire asked teachers how well Musical Futures worked within the state mandated curriculum (the Victorian Essential Learning Skills [VELS]) and pedagogical directions (the e5 Instructional Model, DDECD, 2009). They were very positive about how easily Musical Futures worked with the VELS, commenting that creating, making, exploring and responding were facilitated easily by the program. Five teachers made comments about the connections between Musical Futures and the recently implemented e5 instructional model noting that student were involved particularly in engaging and exploring. There were few difficulties encountered by the teachers in implementing the program and they were different in each school. While one teacher found a reluctance in the instrumental staff to become involved, another teacher found the program ran smoothly thanks to the support of instrumental staff. There were only minimal adjustments and adaptations to the program model that appear to be minor tailoring to the individual needs of classes and students. completed the questionnaires. The majority of the schools had been implementing Musical Futures for two terms at the time of the data collection and over 1,000 students, (mostly middle school), had been involved in the program. The investment in the equipment varied from nil to $15,000 depending on what already existed in the school and Table 1 provides a summary of information about the schools involved.
The questionnaire asked teachers how well Musical Futures worked within the state mandated curriculum (the Victorian Essential Learning Skills [VELS]) and pedagogical directions (the e5 Instructional Model, DDECD, 2009). They were very positive about how easily Musical Futures worked with the VELS, commenting that creating, making, exploring and responding were facilitated easily by the program. Five teachers made comments about the connections between Musical Futures and the recently implemented e5 instructional model noting that student were involved particularly in engaging and exploring. There were few difficulties encountered by the teachers in implementing the program and they were different in each school. While one teacher found a reluctance in the instrumental staff to become involved, another teacher found the program ran smoothly thanks to the support of instrumental staff. There were only minimal adjustments and adaptations to the program model that appear to be minor tailoring to the individual needs of classes and students. completed the questionnaires. The majority of the schools had been implementing Musical Futures for two terms at the time of the data collection and over 1,000 students, (mostly middle school), had been involved in the program. The investment in the equipment varied from nil to $15,000 depending on what already existed in the school and Table 1 provides a summary of information about the schools involved.
Table 3: Musical Futures statements
Table 3: Musical Futures statements
There were a number of other statements that generated unanimous agreement from the teachers (Table 3). They all felt that Musical Futures was useful, had changed and improved their teaching, had changed music teaching in the school, and helped students demonstrate their musical potential. They also agreed that Musical Futures helped integrate students’ informal music learning with classroom activities and could be implemented successfully in other schools. There was very strong agreement that they had observed a positive response from students and an engagement of previously disinterested students.
There were a number of other statements that generated unanimous agreement from the teachers (Table 3). They all felt that Musical Futures was useful, had changed and improved their teaching, had changed music teaching in the school, and helped students demonstrate their musical potential. They also agreed that Musical Futures helped integrate students’ informal music learning with classroom activities and could be implemented successfully in other schools. There was very strong agreement that they had observed a positive response from students and an engagement of previously disinterested students.
The teachers commented that the approach was more engaging for students and that working and learning alongside the students was an important aspect and that Musical Futures would have a long-term impact on their music teaching.
The teachers commented that the approach was more engaging for students and that working and learning alongside the students was an important aspect and that Musical Futures would have a long-term impact on their music teaching.
The same teacher noted above was again cautious about commenting on the benefits of Musical Futures, feeling it was too early to assess but all the other teachers noted a variety of benefits that included greater engagement, improved motivation, independent learning skills, greater task focus, better behaviour and greater enthusiasm (Table 6). Most notable was one teacher’s comment that “the behaviour issues are gone”.
The same teacher noted above was again cautious about commenting on the benefits of Musical Futures, feeling it was too early to assess but all the other teachers noted a variety of benefits that included greater engagement, improved motivation, independent learning skills, greater task focus, better behaviour and greater enthusiasm (Table 6). Most notable was one teacher’s comment that “the behaviour issues are gone”.
Table | Interestingly, of the 29 respondents indicating they received 20-30 or 31-40 hours of music education, 28 indicated they taught music to their class on a regular basis and 24 indicated they felt confident about teaching music. Although there are likely to be other factors, this is an initially strong indicator that increased hours devoted to music education in a teacher education course can result not only in increased confidence to teach music but more actual teaching of music once students graduate and begin teaching. Of those three respondents receiving just two to four hours of music education in their courses, none indicated they were confident about teaching music and none of the three indicated they currently taught music to their class. The results for those receiving just five to nine hours of music education were little better, with only two of the 28 respondents indicating they felt confident teaching music and just 3 indicating they did teach music to their class. When asked if they believed the amount of time devoted to music education was sufficient in their All respondents indicated they undertook music education as part of their preservice teacher education courses at university, whether that was as part of a four year undergraduate degree (83 respondents, 74%) or a graduate course (29 respondents, 26%). The respondents identified three general areas that addressed music in their courses: music fundamentals (48 respondents, 43%), learning how to teach music (110 respondents, 98%), and how to integrate music across the curriculum (25 respondents, 22%). When asked how many subjects in their courses included music education, 73 indicated just one subject (65%), 37 identified two subjects (33%), and 2 students identified three subjects (2%). When asked to estimate the total number of hours in their course devoted to music, the majority estimated between 10-19 hours (see table 1).
Table | Interestingly, of the 29 respondents indicating they received 20-30 or 31-40 hours of music education, 28 indicated they taught music to their class on a regular basis and 24 indicated they felt confident about teaching music. Although there are likely to be other factors, this is an initially strong indicator that increased hours devoted to music education in a teacher education course can result not only in increased confidence to teach music but more actual teaching of music once students graduate and begin teaching. Of those three respondents receiving just two to four hours of music education in their courses, none indicated they were confident about teaching music and none of the three indicated they currently taught music to their class. The results for those receiving just five to nine hours of music education were little better, with only two of the 28 respondents indicating they felt confident teaching music and just 3 indicating they did teach music to their class. When asked if they believed the amount of time devoted to music education was sufficient in their All respondents indicated they undertook music education as part of their preservice teacher education courses at university, whether that was as part of a four year undergraduate degree (83 respondents, 74%) or a graduate course (29 respondents, 26%). The respondents identified three general areas that addressed music in their courses: music fundamentals (48 respondents, 43%), learning how to teach music (110 respondents, 98%), and how to integrate music across the curriculum (25 respondents, 22%). When asked how many subjects in their courses included music education, 73 indicated just one subject (65%), 37 identified two subjects (33%), and 2 students identified three subjects (2%). When asked to estimate the total number of hours in their course devoted to music, the majority estimated between 10-19 hours (see table 1).
The 41 teachers who indicated they taught music to their class on a regular basis and the 19 who sometimes teach music to their class identified the use of the following music resources in their first year of teaching (see table 5): Interestingly there was no specific mention of singing to this question, yet when asked to identify the nusic activities that they have taught in their first year of teaching, singing dominated (see table 4).
The 41 teachers who indicated they taught music to their class on a regular basis and the 19 who sometimes teach music to their class identified the use of the following music resources in their first year of teaching (see table 5): Interestingly there was no specific mention of singing to this question, yet when asked to identify the nusic activities that they have taught in their first year of teaching, singing dominated (see table 4).
The development of resources included comments centred around sourcing and learning how to use books, kits, CDs, and developing lesson plans that could be used when teaching. The strong showing of integrating music was elaborated on by some respondents, who identified the need to integrate music because this was a strong focus of current curriculum (the Victorian Essential Learning Standards) and because of lack of time to “just teach a music lesson.” This emphasis on integration was also reflected in the number of teachers who were choosing to integrate music in their teaching, rather than teaching standalone music lessons. That is, of the 41 teachers who indicated they taught music to their class on a regular basis, 29 integrated music (71%), 7 only taught standalone music lessons (17%), and 5 did both (12%). When asked to identifv the most useful asnects of their music education course content in their course, only 9 indicated yes. Not unsurprisingly, these three respondents received either 31-40 hours of music education or 20-30 hours. 103 of the 112 (92%) respondents felt that the amount of time devoted to music >ducation in their teacher education courses was insufficient.
The development of resources included comments centred around sourcing and learning how to use books, kits, CDs, and developing lesson plans that could be used when teaching. The strong showing of integrating music was elaborated on by some respondents, who identified the need to integrate music because this was a strong focus of current curriculum (the Victorian Essential Learning Standards) and because of lack of time to “just teach a music lesson.” This emphasis on integration was also reflected in the number of teachers who were choosing to integrate music in their teaching, rather than teaching standalone music lessons. That is, of the 41 teachers who indicated they taught music to their class on a regular basis, 29 integrated music (71%), 7 only taught standalone music lessons (17%), and 5 did both (12%). When asked to identifv the most useful asnects of their music education course content in their course, only 9 indicated yes. Not unsurprisingly, these three respondents received either 31-40 hours of music education or 20-30 hours. 103 of the 112 (92%) respondents felt that the amount of time devoted to music >ducation in their teacher education courses was insufficient.
Access to resources to teach music was also identified as one of the circumstances that respondents indicated would facilitate the teaching of music in their classrooms (see table 6):
Access to resources to teach music was also identified as one of the circumstances that respondents indicated would facilitate the teaching of music in their classrooms (see table 6):
The dominance of having more time to teach music refers to the crowded curriculum identified by many respondents. These first year teachers clearly want more expertise in teaching music. However, if they do develop this expertise, finding the time to teach music, having access to appropriate resources, and finding the physical space to teach music are all further hurdles to teaching music. Finally, none of the 112 respondents had accessed any professional development focusing on music in their first year of teaching.
The dominance of having more time to teach music refers to the crowded curriculum identified by many respondents. These first year teachers clearly want more expertise in teaching music. However, if they do develop this expertise, finding the time to teach music, having access to appropriate resources, and finding the physical space to teach music are all further hurdles to teaching music. Finally, none of the 112 respondents had accessed any professional development focusing on music in their first year of teaching.
i, > ie, < as This paper explores metacognitive learning processes appropriate to a musical performance context, making specific reference to the theoretical perspectives of Sadler (1989, 1998), Hattie and Timperley (2007), and Hattie (2009) within an assessment for learning paradigm. Metacognition refers to higher-order thinking that is about the learner’s knowledge about learning, and involves active control over the cognitive and regulation processes engaged in learning. Metacognitive activities focus on the on the cognitive knowledge of where, how, when and why to use particular tactics and strategies in their appropriate contexts and the implementation of self-regulatory (self-management) skills of planning, monitoring and evaluating of one’s learning (Forrest-Pressley & Waller, 1984; Hallam, 2001; Hattie, 2009; Hattie, Biggs & Purdie, 1996; Newell, 1990; Schraw & Moshman, 1995).
i, > ie, < as This paper explores metacognitive learning processes appropriate to a musical performance context, making specific reference to the theoretical perspectives of Sadler (1989, 1998), Hattie and Timperley (2007), and Hattie (2009) within an assessment for learning paradigm. Metacognition refers to higher-order thinking that is about the learner’s knowledge about learning, and involves active control over the cognitive and regulation processes engaged in learning. Metacognitive activities focus on the on the cognitive knowledge of where, how, when and why to use particular tactics and strategies in their appropriate contexts and the implementation of self-regulatory (self-management) skills of planning, monitoring and evaluating of one’s learning (Forrest-Pressley & Waller, 1984; Hallam, 2001; Hattie, 2009; Hattie, Biggs & Purdie, 1996; Newell, 1990; Schraw & Moshman, 1995).
Why Sadler? IE EE Of particular interest is the work of Sadler (1989, 1998) whose writing is primarily focused about the development of expertise through formative assessment. The appropriateness and relevance of his work to music performance learning and assessment is evident through his educational theory of student improvement and self-regulation within a formative assessment framework in complex learning settings where student outcomes are appraised qualitatively using multiple criteria.
Why Sadler? IE EE Of particular interest is the work of Sadler (1989, 1998) whose writing is primarily focused about the development of expertise through formative assessment. The appropriateness and relevance of his work to music performance learning and assessment is evident through his educational theory of student improvement and self-regulation within a formative assessment framework in complex learning settings where student outcomes are appraised qualitatively using multiple criteria.
Considerable research has investigated the effects of goals on performance over recent decades (Bandura, 1982; Bargh, Gollwitzer, Lee-Chai, Barndollar & Trotschel, 2001; Black & Wiliam, 1998; Hattie, 1999; Kluger & DeNisi, 1996; Locke & Latham, 1984 & 1990; Locke, Shaw, Saari & Latham, 1981; Mikulincer, 1988; Steinberg, 1996; Sweller, 1990). It is only when a learner assumes ownership of or internalises a goal that it can play a significant part in the voluntary regulation of performance. Students can only achieve learning goals if they understand those goals, assume some ownership of them, and can assess progress (Sadler, 1989; Black & Wiliam, 1998; Nicol & Macfarlane-Dick, 2006). Goals are more effective when students share a commitment to attaining them because they are more likely to seek and receive feedback (Locke & Latham, 1990).
Considerable research has investigated the effects of goals on performance over recent decades (Bandura, 1982; Bargh, Gollwitzer, Lee-Chai, Barndollar & Trotschel, 2001; Black & Wiliam, 1998; Hattie, 1999; Kluger & DeNisi, 1996; Locke & Latham, 1984 & 1990; Locke, Shaw, Saari & Latham, 1981; Mikulincer, 1988; Steinberg, 1996; Sweller, 1990). It is only when a learner assumes ownership of or internalises a goal that it can play a significant part in the voluntary regulation of performance. Students can only achieve learning goals if they understand those goals, assume some ownership of them, and can assess progress (Sadler, 1989; Black & Wiliam, 1998; Nicol & Macfarlane-Dick, 2006). Goals are more effective when students share a commitment to attaining them because they are more likely to seek and receive feedback (Locke & Latham, 1990).
Gauldin uses musical examples drawn from the music of 110 composers, explores the outer reaches of the traditional classical canon by including numerous non-European and female composers and also includes folk and popular music. Aldwell and Schacter use 38 different composers, all of whom are European and male, and largely eschew recently-composed tonal music of any style. While the stated intention of Aldwell and Schacter is a study of eighteenth- and nineteenth-century harmonic practice, the use of a text which ignores the music of the past 110 years and promotes a canon based on exclusion sends a powerful message to undergraduate students about ideas of cultural value. Ultimately, divisions of repertoire between ‘high’ and ‘low’ art, ‘popular’ and ‘classical’ music and other such labels are value-laden constructs determined and reinforced by teachers and scholars. These divisions are revealed as anachronistic when one considers that a Mozart aria and a Beatles song can be argued to have much more in common in terms of music language such as chord progression, phrase structure and texture, than a Bach fugue.
Gauldin uses musical examples drawn from the music of 110 composers, explores the outer reaches of the traditional classical canon by including numerous non-European and female composers and also includes folk and popular music. Aldwell and Schacter use 38 different composers, all of whom are European and male, and largely eschew recently-composed tonal music of any style. While the stated intention of Aldwell and Schacter is a study of eighteenth- and nineteenth-century harmonic practice, the use of a text which ignores the music of the past 110 years and promotes a canon based on exclusion sends a powerful message to undergraduate students about ideas of cultural value. Ultimately, divisions of repertoire between ‘high’ and ‘low’ art, ‘popular’ and ‘classical’ music and other such labels are value-laden constructs determined and reinforced by teachers and scholars. These divisions are revealed as anachronistic when one considers that a Mozart aria and a Beatles song can be argued to have much more in common in terms of music language such as chord progression, phrase structure and texture, than a Bach fugue.
Related topics:
Early Childhood EducationMusic ImprovisationMultimodality, Social Semiotics
580 California St., Suite 400
San Francisco, CA, 94104
© 2025 Academia. All rights reserved