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Table 4. Fish bones (NISP) from Pit A, Mask Cave. the Pit A bone assemblage by McNiven revealed 94 fish bones. It is likely that many of the bones assigned to the ‘smaller vertebrate’ category represent highly fragmented fish bones. The 94 fish bones were sent to Weisler for identification to nearest taxon using a reference collection consisting of nearly 400 individual specimens from 46 families (see Weisler 2001: Appendix 3 for a complete listing of taxa). Because the assemblage consists primarily of bones <Smm in length, a binocular microscope at 10-15X was necessary for examining individual elements. For the purposes of this preliminary analysis, the fish bones were quantified by the number of identified specimens (NISP) per cultural phase. Vertebrae were measured with calipers to two decimal places for providing an indication of fish size.

Table 4 Fish bones (NISP) from Pit A, Mask Cave. the Pit A bone assemblage by McNiven revealed 94 fish bones. It is likely that many of the bones assigned to the ‘smaller vertebrate’ category represent highly fragmented fish bones. The 94 fish bones were sent to Weisler for identification to nearest taxon using a reference collection consisting of nearly 400 individual specimens from 46 families (see Weisler 2001: Appendix 3 for a complete listing of taxa). Because the assemblage consists primarily of bones <Smm in length, a binocular microscope at 10-15X was necessary for examining individual elements. For the purposes of this preliminary analysis, the fish bones were quantified by the number of identified specimens (NISP) per cultural phase. Vertebrae were measured with calipers to two decimal places for providing an indication of fish size.

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Figure 1. Study area showing sites mentioned in text. On the 17 August 1998, 100 years after Haddon’s team visited Pulu, one of us (IM) was accompanied to Pulu by Mabuyag Elders. Unlike Haddon’s visit a century earlier, the cave past Awgadhalkula was visited (Figure 2). Exposed across the cave surface were found flaked stone artefacts and scattered fragments of marine shell and marine turtle bone. The most recent evidence of use was a broken bottle, a rusty piece of metal (possibly a large knife blade), and a matchbox tin, all probably dating to the late 19th/early 20th century. The most striking feature of the site was a large face or ‘mask’ painted with red ochre located on the western roof of the cave (Figure 3). The face has stylistic similarities to the low-relief carved faces on Gope boards of the Papuan Gulf (see Lewis 1973; Newton 1961).
Figure 1. Study area showing sites mentioned in text. On the 17 August 1998, 100 years after Haddon’s team visited Pulu, one of us (IM) was accompanied to Pulu by Mabuyag Elders. Unlike Haddon’s visit a century earlier, the cave past Awgadhalkula was visited (Figure 2). Exposed across the cave surface were found flaked stone artefacts and scattered fragments of marine shell and marine turtle bone. The most recent evidence of use was a broken bottle, a rusty piece of metal (possibly a large knife blade), and a matchbox tin, all probably dating to the late 19th/early 20th century. The most striking feature of the site was a large face or ‘mask’ painted with red ochre located on the western roof of the cave (Figure 3). The face has stylistic similarities to the low-relief carved faces on Gope boards of the Papuan Gulf (see Lewis 1973; Newton 1961).
Figure 2. Mask Cave after excavation of Pits A and B in 2002 (Photo: Ian McNiven). channel running through the middle o: the site. The significance of the find: was recognized immediately. The sherds were the first examples o! Indigenous pottery recorded fo: western Zenadh Kes — pottery beings unknown ethnographically for Zenadl Kes (Gill 1874: 218; Haddon 1912 122). These sherds appeared similar tc pottery excavated two years earlier b} Melissa Carter from the Murray Islands of eastern Zenadh Kes anc pointed to the existence of an ancien and forgotten trans-Zenadh Ke: pottery tradition. It was assumed tha the pottery entered Zenadh Kes fron ethnographically and archaeologic ally-known pottery producers o southeastern Papua New Guines through a previously unknown west ern extension of the Papuan Gul pottery trading system (e.g. Bickle 1997). Thus, both rock-art and pottery at Mask Cave pointed to possibl ancient cultural connections betweer the central western islands of Zenadl Kes and Papua New Guinea. I Haddon and his Mabuyag escorts hac been present with us that day the; would surely have been impressec with what we found at Mask Cave because they knew Torres Strai Islander oral histories point to Nev Guinea peoples to the east as the firs migrants to many of the islands o id after 100 years of archaeologica northern Australia, New Guinea and the new Mask Cave had the potential to yiel
Figure 2. Mask Cave after excavation of Pits A and B in 2002 (Photo: Ian McNiven). channel running through the middle o: the site. The significance of the find: was recognized immediately. The sherds were the first examples o! Indigenous pottery recorded fo: western Zenadh Kes — pottery beings unknown ethnographically for Zenadl Kes (Gill 1874: 218; Haddon 1912 122). These sherds appeared similar tc pottery excavated two years earlier b} Melissa Carter from the Murray Islands of eastern Zenadh Kes anc pointed to the existence of an ancien and forgotten trans-Zenadh Ke: pottery tradition. It was assumed tha the pottery entered Zenadh Kes fron ethnographically and archaeologic ally-known pottery producers o southeastern Papua New Guines through a previously unknown west ern extension of the Papuan Gul pottery trading system (e.g. Bickle 1997). Thus, both rock-art and pottery at Mask Cave pointed to possibl ancient cultural connections betweer the central western islands of Zenadl Kes and Papua New Guinea. I Haddon and his Mabuyag escorts hac been present with us that day the; would surely have been impressec with what we found at Mask Cave because they knew Torres Strai Islander oral histories point to Nev Guinea peoples to the east as the firs migrants to many of the islands o id after 100 years of archaeologica northern Australia, New Guinea and the new Mask Cave had the potential to yiel
present results of our excavations at Mask Cave in October 2002 and October/November 2003. To set the scene for appreciating the significance of the site, we begin by outlining previous understandings of Torres Strait Islander origins, first from Torres Strait Islanders themselves (oral traditions), followed by the work of outside researchers (anthropologists and archaeologists).
present results of our excavations at Mask Cave in October 2002 and October/November 2003. To set the scene for appreciating the significance of the site, we begin by outlining previous understandings of Torres Strait Islander origins, first from Torres Strait Islanders themselves (oral traditions), followed by the work of outside researchers (anthropologists and archaeologists).
Figure 4. Mask Cave site map. Badu 15 revealed no faunal remains, thus precluding insights into subsistence activities. As such, it shed little light on the apparent widespread development of midden deposits (and associated maritime specialization) across Zenadh Kes that had independently been argued to start 2500 BP (Barham 2000). In addition, no radiocarbon dates are available at Badu 15 for the last 3000 years BP (the upper 11cm has not been dated). Thus, two issues remain unresolved in our new understandings of Zenadh Kes colonization. First, the historical relationship between ‘colonisation’ events of 3500 BP and the onset of major midden development and marine specialization at 2500 BP.
Figure 4. Mask Cave site map. Badu 15 revealed no faunal remains, thus precluding insights into subsistence activities. As such, it shed little light on the apparent widespread development of midden deposits (and associated maritime specialization) across Zenadh Kes that had independently been argued to start 2500 BP (Barham 2000). In addition, no radiocarbon dates are available at Badu 15 for the last 3000 years BP (the upper 11cm has not been dated). Thus, two issues remain unresolved in our new understandings of Zenadh Kes colonization. First, the historical relationship between ‘colonisation’ events of 3500 BP and the onset of major midden development and marine specialization at 2500 BP.
Figure 5. Cygnet Repu and John Bani of Mabuyag excavating Pits A and B, Mask Cave, October 2002. ‘Mask’ painting at top left (Photo: Ian McNiven). Second, the mismatch between the suggestion of 3500 BP Austronesian influences into Zenadh Kes (David et al. 2004) and the more temporally restricted and well-accepted timeframe of 2000 BP for Austronesian expansions along the southern Papuan coast. It is in this connection that excavations at Mask Cave on Pulu islet in western Zenadh Kes shed fundamentally new insights into the history of Zenadh Kes and southern Papua New Guinea.
Figure 5. Cygnet Repu and John Bani of Mabuyag excavating Pits A and B, Mask Cave, October 2002. ‘Mask’ painting at top left (Photo: Ian McNiven). Second, the mismatch between the suggestion of 3500 BP Austronesian influences into Zenadh Kes (David et al. 2004) and the more temporally restricted and well-accepted timeframe of 2000 BP for Austronesian expansions along the southern Papuan coast. It is in this connection that excavations at Mask Cave on Pulu islet in western Zenadh Kes shed fundamentally new insights into the history of Zenadh Kes and southern Papua New Guinea.
Figure 6. Mask Cave stratigraphy, west trench (Pits A, B, E and F). Figure 7. Mask Cave stratigraphy, east trench (Pits C and D).
Figure 6. Mask Cave stratigraphy, west trench (Pits A, B, E and F). Figure 7. Mask Cave stratigraphy, east trench (Pits C and D).
Table 2. AMS radiocarbon dates for east trench (Pits C and D), Mask Cave. * = highest probability of calibrated ranges. # Dates expressed as ‘Years Ago’ equate with calBP (calibrated dates before AD1950) and represent approximates based upon the midpoint of the highest probability 1 sigma calibrated age range rounded to the nearest 50 years.
Table 2. AMS radiocarbon dates for east trench (Pits C and D), Mask Cave. * = highest probability of calibrated ranges. # Dates expressed as ‘Years Ago’ equate with calBP (calibrated dates before AD1950) and represent approximates based upon the midpoint of the highest probability 1 sigma calibrated age range rounded to the nearest 50 years.
Table 3. Occupational phases for Mask Cave. Four major phases of occupation have been identified for Mask Cave (Table 3). The age range of phases has been rounded to the nearest 100 years to emphasise the temporal generality of each phase. Phase | is revealed only in the west trench while Phases 2-4 are found in both the east and west trenches. Delineation of phases is based on date clusters and hiatuses (Figure 8), SU and changes in cultural materials (see below).
Table 3. Occupational phases for Mask Cave. Four major phases of occupation have been identified for Mask Cave (Table 3). The age range of phases has been rounded to the nearest 100 years to emphasise the temporal generality of each phase. Phase | is revealed only in the west trench while Phases 2-4 are found in both the east and west trenches. Delineation of phases is based on date clusters and hiatuses (Figure 8), SU and changes in cultural materials (see below).
Figure 8. Calibrated AMS radiocarbon dates for Mask Cave (Black = | sigma range; White = 2 sigma range).
Figure 8. Calibrated AMS radiocarbon dates for Mask Cave (Black = | sigma range; White = 2 sigma range).
Figure 9. Chronological changes in the density of cultural materials from Pit A, Mask Cave (excludes large discoidal core from XU 10).
Figure 9. Chronological changes in the density of cultural materials from Pit A, Mask Cave (excludes large discoidal core from XU 10).
BP (c.2450 calBP) (SqA, XU22a, 73-79cm below the surface) (Figure 6). The first group of eight sherds came from 5-25cm below the surface (Pit A: XUs 6 and 7; Pit E: XUs 5, 7, 8 and 11). They span the depth range of Phase 3 dated 1500-1700 years ago. However it is possible that the deepest of these sherds (Pit E, XU11) is older as it is located at the interface of Phases 2 and 3. Parsimony suggests the two surface sherds similarly belong to Phase 3. The second group of five sherds came from 65-95 cm below the surface (Pit A: XUs 21a and 22a; Pit E: XU29c; Pit F: XU31) in deposits dated 2400-2500 years ago (Phase 2). A single stratigraphic outlier, the sherd from Pit E XU16a at a depth of 36-38cm below the surface, is embedded within sediments assigned to Phase 2 and is likewise assigned an age of 2400-2500 years ago. It is plausible that pottery is associated with the start of Phase 2 at 2600 years ago given that the one sigma calibrated age range for the oldest pottery sherd dated 2507+42 BP is 2363-2696 calBP. As such, the earliest pottery at Mask Cave is assigned a date of 2400- 2600 years ago. Figure 10. Selected pottery sherds from Mask Cave (cross-section is through the axis of maximum curvature)
BP (c.2450 calBP) (SqA, XU22a, 73-79cm below the surface) (Figure 6). The first group of eight sherds came from 5-25cm below the surface (Pit A: XUs 6 and 7; Pit E: XUs 5, 7, 8 and 11). They span the depth range of Phase 3 dated 1500-1700 years ago. However it is possible that the deepest of these sherds (Pit E, XU11) is older as it is located at the interface of Phases 2 and 3. Parsimony suggests the two surface sherds similarly belong to Phase 3. The second group of five sherds came from 65-95 cm below the surface (Pit A: XUs 21a and 22a; Pit E: XU29c; Pit F: XU31) in deposits dated 2400-2500 years ago (Phase 2). A single stratigraphic outlier, the sherd from Pit E XU16a at a depth of 36-38cm below the surface, is embedded within sediments assigned to Phase 2 and is likewise assigned an age of 2400-2500 years ago. It is plausible that pottery is associated with the start of Phase 2 at 2600 years ago given that the one sigma calibrated age range for the oldest pottery sherd dated 2507+42 BP is 2363-2696 calBP. As such, the earliest pottery at Mask Cave is assigned a date of 2400- 2600 years ago. Figure 10. Selected pottery sherds from Mask Cave (cross-section is through the axis of maximum curvature)
Table 5. Frequency percentages of grain types in sand tempers of Mask Cave sherds (exclusive of ferruginous pedogenic nodules) based on crosshair traverse counts of 400 sand grains in each thin section. 'VRF = volcanic rock fragments. ? Standard deviation of counting error given by (p(100 - p)/400}'2 where p is percentage
Table 5. Frequency percentages of grain types in sand tempers of Mask Cave sherds (exclusive of ferruginous pedogenic nodules) based on crosshair traverse counts of 400 sand grains in each thin section. 'VRF = volcanic rock fragments. ? Standard deviation of counting error given by (p(100 - p)/400}'2 where p is percentage
Table 6. Selected radiocarbon dates for early southern Papuan sites. Calibrated using Calib 5.0.2 (Southern Hemisphere). * Highest probability of calibrated ranges. # Dates expressed as ‘Years Ago’ equate with calBP (calibrated dates before AD1950) and represent approximates based upon the midpoint of the highest probability 1 sigma calibrated age range rounded to the nearest 50 years. No AR value was used in calibrating the shell date from Loloata as no reliable AR value is available for the Port Moresby region. of pottery. Where did the person or peoples who made the Mask Cave pottery acquire the skills and knowledge to manufacture fine-quality red-slipped pottery? Two options present themselves — links to the west (West Papua) and/or links to the east (Papua New Guinea). Unfortunately, it is difficult to assess the merits of the western link as very little archaeological research has been undertaken along the south coast of West Papua. While red-slipped pottery dated back to 3200 years ago occurs in the northern Moluccas (Bellwood 1997a: 229), closer to the south West Papuan coast reliable dates for pottery in the Aru Islands are within the last 1000 years (O’Connor et al. 2005: 311). Thus, in terms of available information, parsimony suggests strongly that the Mask Cave potters came from pottery manufac- turing communities of southern coastal Papua New Guinea who possessed a red-slipped pottery manufacturing tradition. However, previous archaeological research along the southern Papuan coast dates the introduction of the red- The Mask Cave assemblage suggests that finely-crafted red-slipped pottery was made in western Zenadh Kes 2400- 2600 years ago. This ware indicates considerable pottery manufacturing skills for an area that has no previous history
Table 6. Selected radiocarbon dates for early southern Papuan sites. Calibrated using Calib 5.0.2 (Southern Hemisphere). * Highest probability of calibrated ranges. # Dates expressed as ‘Years Ago’ equate with calBP (calibrated dates before AD1950) and represent approximates based upon the midpoint of the highest probability 1 sigma calibrated age range rounded to the nearest 50 years. No AR value was used in calibrating the shell date from Loloata as no reliable AR value is available for the Port Moresby region. of pottery. Where did the person or peoples who made the Mask Cave pottery acquire the skills and knowledge to manufacture fine-quality red-slipped pottery? Two options present themselves — links to the west (West Papua) and/or links to the east (Papua New Guinea). Unfortunately, it is difficult to assess the merits of the western link as very little archaeological research has been undertaken along the south coast of West Papua. While red-slipped pottery dated back to 3200 years ago occurs in the northern Moluccas (Bellwood 1997a: 229), closer to the south West Papuan coast reliable dates for pottery in the Aru Islands are within the last 1000 years (O’Connor et al. 2005: 311). Thus, in terms of available information, parsimony suggests strongly that the Mask Cave potters came from pottery manufac- turing communities of southern coastal Papua New Guinea who possessed a red-slipped pottery manufacturing tradition. However, previous archaeological research along the southern Papuan coast dates the introduction of the red- The Mask Cave assemblage suggests that finely-crafted red-slipped pottery was made in western Zenadh Kes 2400- 2600 years ago. This ware indicates considerable pottery manufacturing skills for an area that has no previous history
Table 7. Radiocarbon dates (basal or near basal) for selected early major midden deposits, Zenadh Kes.
Table 7. Radiocarbon dates (basal or near basal) for selected early major midden deposits, Zenadh Kes.
Appendix. Pottery from Mask Cave.
Appendix. Pottery from Mask Cave.
' measured perpendicular to maximum length
' measured perpendicular to maximum length
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