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Abstract
Figures
Introduction
Construction Materials and Surface Coating (Form)
Construction Materials
Case Study
Case Study 5.3 Table 1
Planning Parameters Recommendations
Case
Climate Analysis and Mapping
Planning and Design Interventions
Knowledge Gaps and Future Research
Conclusions
References
All Topics
Environmental Science
Environmental Design

Urban Planning and Urban Design

Profile image of Joel TowersJoel Towers

Climate Change and Cities

https://doi.org/10.1017/9781316563878.012
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Abstract

Urban planning and urban design have a critical role to play in the global response to climate change. Actions that simultaneously reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and build resilience to climate risks should be prioritized at all urban scales-metropolitan region, city, district/neighborhood, block, and building. This needs to be done in ways that are responsive to and appropriate for local conditions. Major Findings Urban planners and urban designers have a portfolio of climate change strategies that guide decisions on urban form and function: • Urban waste heat and GHG emissions from infrastructureincluding buildings, transportation, and industry-can be reduced through improvements in the efficiency of urban systems. • Modifying the form and layout of buildings and urban districts can provide cooling and ventilation that reduces energy use and allow citizens to cope with higher temperatures and more intense runoff. • Selecting low heat capacity construction materials and reflective coatings can improve building performance by managing heat exchange at the surface. • Increasing the vegetative cover in a city can simultaneously lower outdoor temperatures, building cooling demand, runoff, and pollution, while sequestering carbon. Key Messages Integrated climate change mitigation and adaptation strategies should form a core element in urban planning and urban design, taking into account local conditions. This is because decisions on urban form have long-term (>50 years) consequences and thus strongly affect a city's capacity to reduce GHG emissions and to respond to climate hazards over time. Investing in mitigation strategies that yield concurrent adaptation benefits should be prioritized in order to achieve the transformations necessary to respond effectively to climate change. Consideration needs to be given to how regional decisions may affect neighborhoods or individual parcels and vice versa, and tools are needed that assess conditions in the urban environment at city block and/or neighborhood scales. There is a growing consensus around integrating urban planning and urban design, climate science, and policy to bring about desirable microclimates within compact, pedestrianfriendly built environments that address both mitigation and adaptation. Urban planning and urban design should incorporate longrange mitigation and adaptation strategies for climate change that reach across physical scales, jurisdictions, and electoral timeframes. These activities need to deliver a high quality of life for urban citizens as the key performance outcome, as well as climate change benefits.

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‘igure 5.1 Strategies used by urban planners and urban designers to facilitate integrated mitigation and adaptation in cities: (1) reducing waste heat and greenhouse 2missions through energy efficiency, transit access, and walkability; (2) modifying form and layout of buildings and urban districts; (3) use of heat-resistant construction naterials and reflective surface coatings; and (4) increasing vegetative cover. However, not all existing urban areas are compact (see Figure 5.2). Low-density areas continue to contribute dis- proportionately to emissions because of the excess mobility required by long distances, few alternatives to the private car, and scant possibilities for shared building envelopes. Whether such patterns are the result of planning or a lack thereof, it is Key concepts, challenges, and pathways for adaptation and mitigation of climate change through recent advances in the planning and design of cities are reviewed in this chapter. Section 5.2 presents the concept of integrated mitigation and adaptation as a framework and introduces the factors of urban- scale form and function as influences on urban climate. Section 5.3 explains how urban microclimates are embedded in zones of human occupation and links metropolitan-scale urbanization with heat and storm-water impacts. Section 5.4 focuses on planning and design innovations that can be applied to achieve integrated mitigation and adaptation. Section 5.5 describes a process for implementing climate-responsive urban planning and urban design. Section 5.6 identifies key climate-resilient urban planning and urban design stakeholders and a set of value propositions to engage a broader constituency. Section 5.7 describes the challenges in cross-sector linkages between the scientific, design, and policy-making communities. Section 5.8 identifies knowledge gaps and future research opportunities, and Section 5.9 presents conclusions and recommendations for practitioners and policy-makers. Case Studies are distributed throughout the chapter to illustrate on-the-ground, effective implementations of the planning and design strategies presented.
‘igure 5.1 Strategies used by urban planners and urban designers to facilitate integrated mitigation and adaptation in cities: (1) reducing waste heat and greenhouse 2missions through energy efficiency, transit access, and walkability; (2) modifying form and layout of buildings and urban districts; (3) use of heat-resistant construction naterials and reflective surface coatings; and (4) increasing vegetative cover. However, not all existing urban areas are compact (see Figure 5.2). Low-density areas continue to contribute dis- proportionately to emissions because of the excess mobility required by long distances, few alternatives to the private car, and scant possibilities for shared building envelopes. Whether such patterns are the result of planning or a lack thereof, it is Key concepts, challenges, and pathways for adaptation and mitigation of climate change through recent advances in the planning and design of cities are reviewed in this chapter. Section 5.2 presents the concept of integrated mitigation and adaptation as a framework and introduces the factors of urban- scale form and function as influences on urban climate. Section 5.3 explains how urban microclimates are embedded in zones of human occupation and links metropolitan-scale urbanization with heat and storm-water impacts. Section 5.4 focuses on planning and design innovations that can be applied to achieve integrated mitigation and adaptation. Section 5.5 describes a process for implementing climate-responsive urban planning and urban design. Section 5.6 identifies key climate-resilient urban planning and urban design stakeholders and a set of value propositions to engage a broader constituency. Section 5.7 describes the challenges in cross-sector linkages between the scientific, design, and policy-making communities. Section 5.8 identifies knowledge gaps and future research opportunities, and Section 5.9 presents conclusions and recommendations for practitioners and policy-makers. Case Studies are distributed throughout the chapter to illustrate on-the-ground, effective implementations of the planning and design strategies presented.
Figure 5.2 Each bar represents an entire metropolitan area (i.e., the city and the continuous urban footprint surrounding it), including often much lower-density suburbs. Urban design is about making connections between peo- ple and places, movement and urban form, nature and the built fabric. Urban design draws together the many strands of place-making, environmental stewardship, social equity, and economic viability into the creation of places with dis- tinct beauty and identity. Urban design is derived from but transcends planning, transportation policy, architectural design, development economics, engineering, and land- scape. It draws together create a vision for an urban area and then deploys the resources and skills needed to bring the vision to life (urbandesign.org). Source: A. L. Brenkert, Oak Ridge National Laboratory. Maps created by Andreas Christen, UBC
Figure 5.2 Each bar represents an entire metropolitan area (i.e., the city and the continuous urban footprint surrounding it), including often much lower-density suburbs. Urban design is about making connections between peo- ple and places, movement and urban form, nature and the built fabric. Urban design draws together the many strands of place-making, environmental stewardship, social equity, and economic viability into the creation of places with dis- tinct beauty and identity. Urban design is derived from but transcends planning, transportation policy, architectural design, development economics, engineering, and land- scape. It draws together create a vision for an urban area and then deploys the resources and skills needed to bring the vision to life (urbandesign.org). Source: A. L. Brenkert, Oak Ridge National Laboratory. Maps created by Andreas Christen, UBC
Figure 5.3 “Green and blue fingers” in Thanh Hoa City, Vietnam, planned for 2020: Contiguous green corridors and canal circulation networks aligned with prevailing summer breezes, punctuated by stormwater retention bodies as urban design amenities. One means of doing so is to prioritize investments in mitiga- tion strategies that yield concurrent adaptive benefits over those
Figure 5.3 “Green and blue fingers” in Thanh Hoa City, Vietnam, planned for 2020: Contiguous green corridors and canal circulation networks aligned with prevailing summer breezes, punctuated by stormwater retention bodies as urban design amenities. One means of doing so is to prioritize investments in mitiga- tion strategies that yield concurrent adaptive benefits over those
Figure 5.5 L’ Ecosystéme Urbain (Urban Ecosystem).
Figure 5.5 L’ Ecosystéme Urbain (Urban Ecosystem).
Figure 5.4 Spatial scales relevant to urban planning and urban design for climate change mitigation and adaptation.
Figure 5.4 Spatial scales relevant to urban planning and urban design for climate change mitigation and adaptation.
Figure 5.6 Local climate zone type. Admittance, or thermal admittance, is a measure of a material’s ability to absorb heat from, and release it to, a space over time. Albedo is the proportion of the incident light or radiation that is reflected by a surface back into space. For example, Stewart and Oke (2012) have developed a simple scheme that classifies urban neighborhoods mainly by form into local climate zones (LCZ) (see Figure 5.6). Each LCZ is char- acterized by typical building heights, street widths, vegetative cover, and paved area. Not surprisingly, the most intense local climate impacts are found where building density is greatest, streets are narrowest, and there is little vegetation (e.g., compact high-rises or dense slums). In many of these areas, the population is highly vulnerable due to poverty or age (see Chapter 6, Equity and Environmental Justice). Cities comprise many LCZ types that occupy varying proportions of the urbanized landscape. This
Figure 5.6 Local climate zone type. Admittance, or thermal admittance, is a measure of a material’s ability to absorb heat from, and release it to, a space over time. Albedo is the proportion of the incident light or radiation that is reflected by a surface back into space. For example, Stewart and Oke (2012) have developed a simple scheme that classifies urban neighborhoods mainly by form into local climate zones (LCZ) (see Figure 5.6). Each LCZ is char- acterized by typical building heights, street widths, vegetative cover, and paved area. Not surprisingly, the most intense local climate impacts are found where building density is greatest, streets are narrowest, and there is little vegetation (e.g., compact high-rises or dense slums). In many of these areas, the population is highly vulnerable due to poverty or age (see Chapter 6, Equity and Environmental Justice). Cities comprise many LCZ types that occupy varying proportions of the urbanized landscape. This
Figure 5.7 The sky view from street level in Berlin, Germany. The hemispheric image shows the extent to which the sky is obscured by the surrounding buildings. The path of the sun at different times of the year is plotted to show the loss of direct sunlight at street level. Good urban planning and urban design are critical to achiev- ing climate change objectives at city, regional, and global scales. Compact and densely occupied cities do not have to feature imper- meable, densely built, and high-rise neighborhoods associated with unwanted urban effects. In a study of urban spatial structure and the occurrence of heat wave days across more than 50 large USS. cities, for example, Stone et al. (2010) found the annual fre- quency of extreme heat events to be rising more slowly in compact cities than in sprawling cities. A wealth of studies find the enhance- ment of vegetation and surface reflectivity in dense urban environ- ments to measurably reduce urban temperatures at the urban and regional scale (see Taha et al., 1999; USEPA, 2008; Gaffin et al. 2012; Stone et al., 2014). Further, tall buildings in cities impede direct sunlight from reaching the ground (see Figure 5.7).
Figure 5.7 The sky view from street level in Berlin, Germany. The hemispheric image shows the extent to which the sky is obscured by the surrounding buildings. The path of the sun at different times of the year is plotted to show the loss of direct sunlight at street level. Good urban planning and urban design are critical to achiev- ing climate change objectives at city, regional, and global scales. Compact and densely occupied cities do not have to feature imper- meable, densely built, and high-rise neighborhoods associated with unwanted urban effects. In a study of urban spatial structure and the occurrence of heat wave days across more than 50 large USS. cities, for example, Stone et al. (2010) found the annual fre- quency of extreme heat events to be rising more slowly in compact cities than in sprawling cities. A wealth of studies find the enhance- ment of vegetation and surface reflectivity in dense urban environ- ments to measurably reduce urban temperatures at the urban and regional scale (see Taha et al., 1999; USEPA, 2008; Gaffin et al. 2012; Stone et al., 2014). Further, tall buildings in cities impede direct sunlight from reaching the ground (see Figure 5.7).
Because compact development reduces VMTs and is more energy efficient, it also lessens GHG and waste heat emis- sions (see Figure 5.9). In a 2010 report to Congress, the U.S. Department of Transportation concluded that land-use strategies relying on compact, walkable, TOD could reduce U.S. GHG emissions by 28-84 million metric tons carbon dioxide equiva- lent (CO,-eq) by the year 2030. Benefits would grow over time to possibly double that amount annually in 2050 (U.S. DOE, 2010). Not only does compact, walkable TOD lower VMT, but it also requires less energy (see Chapter 12, Urban Energy). As Nolon (2012) reports, residential and commercial buildings used an extraordinary amount of electricity and energy in the past genera- tion. In 2008, U.S. residential and commercial buildings consumed 29.29 quadrillion BTUs, which represented 73.2% of all electric- ity produced in the United States (Nolon, 2012). By 2035, the U.S. Department of Energy estimates that residential and commercial buildings will use 76.5% of the total electricity in the United States (Nolon, 2012). This energy consumption is also highly inefficient due to the systems used to produce and transmit it.
Because compact development reduces VMTs and is more energy efficient, it also lessens GHG and waste heat emis- sions (see Figure 5.9). In a 2010 report to Congress, the U.S. Department of Transportation concluded that land-use strategies relying on compact, walkable, TOD could reduce U.S. GHG emissions by 28-84 million metric tons carbon dioxide equiva- lent (CO,-eq) by the year 2030. Benefits would grow over time to possibly double that amount annually in 2050 (U.S. DOE, 2010). Not only does compact, walkable TOD lower VMT, but it also requires less energy (see Chapter 12, Urban Energy). As Nolon (2012) reports, residential and commercial buildings used an extraordinary amount of electricity and energy in the past genera- tion. In 2008, U.S. residential and commercial buildings consumed 29.29 quadrillion BTUs, which represented 73.2% of all electric- ity produced in the United States (Nolon, 2012). By 2035, the U.S. Department of Energy estimates that residential and commercial buildings will use 76.5% of the total electricity in the United States (Nolon, 2012). This energy consumption is also highly inefficient due to the systems used to produce and transmit it.
Figure 5.9 Metropolitan region containment index (1995-2005).
Figure 5.9 Metropolitan region containment index (1995-2005).
Box Figure 5.3 Figure 1 Transit-synergized development concept. At the network level, the transit nodes collectively provide diversity, redundancy, and synergy, effectively transforming the transit network into a framework for a robust, resilient, and adaptive city (Walker and Salt, 2006).
Box Figure 5.3 Figure 1 Transit-synergized development concept. At the network level, the transit nodes collectively provide diversity, redundancy, and synergy, effectively transforming the transit network into a framework for a robust, resilient, and adaptive city (Walker and Salt, 2006).
Wind velocities in cities are generally lower than those in the surrounding countryside due to the obstruction to air flow caused by buildings. In dense, compact communities, natural ventilation is challenging during warm months, often leading to increased cooling demand. This is partly because natural ventilation sys- ems require very little energy but may need more space to accommodate low-resistance air paths (Thomas, 2003). Built-up areas with tall buildings may lead to complex air movement hrough a combination of wind channeling and resistance, often resulting in wind turbulence in some areas and concentrated pollution where there are wind shadows (Brophy et al., 2000). n general, denser developments result in a greater reduction in wind speeds but proportionally increased turbulence. Compact developments have less heat loss because there is generally less surface area for the volume enclosed due to shared wall space (Thomas, 2003). Urban morphology is defined as the three-dimensional form and layout of the built environment and settlement pattern. From regional, urban, and district scales to finer-grained street grids that promote walkability and social cohesion, climate-resilient
Wind velocities in cities are generally lower than those in the surrounding countryside due to the obstruction to air flow caused by buildings. In dense, compact communities, natural ventilation is challenging during warm months, often leading to increased cooling demand. This is partly because natural ventilation sys- ems require very little energy but may need more space to accommodate low-resistance air paths (Thomas, 2003). Built-up areas with tall buildings may lead to complex air movement hrough a combination of wind channeling and resistance, often resulting in wind turbulence in some areas and concentrated pollution where there are wind shadows (Brophy et al., 2000). n general, denser developments result in a greater reduction in wind speeds but proportionally increased turbulence. Compact developments have less heat loss because there is generally less surface area for the volume enclosed due to shared wall space (Thomas, 2003). Urban morphology is defined as the three-dimensional form and layout of the built environment and settlement pattern. From regional, urban, and district scales to finer-grained street grids that promote walkability and social cohesion, climate-resilient
Passive methods to increase comfort and reduce energy loads through solar design include orienting street and public space layout to reduce solar gain during hot months, shading through the configuration of adjacent vegetation, orienting neighborhood configurations to the sun’s path to maximize daylight in ground floor living rooms, placing tall buildings to the north edges of a neighborhood to preserve solar potential for photovoltaic arrays, varying building heights and breaks in the building line to reduce shadowing and increase solar access during cold months, and maximizing use of cool surfaces and reflective roofs in hot climates. Figures 5.10, 5.11, and the Masdar example (Case Study 5.4) illustrate these approaches. Street-level ventilation for warm and humid climates is key, using approaches that do not necessarily require changing mor- phology. A simulation exercise of the likely urban warming effects of the planned urban growth trajectories in the warm, humid city of Colombo, Sri Lanka, indicates that there are sig- nificant differences in the likely warming rates between different urban growth trajectories (Emmanuel et al., 2007). A moderate increase in built cover (at an LCZ class of compact midrise) appears to lead to the least amount of warming. At the neighbor- hood scale, streets oriented to the prevailing wind directions with staggered building arrangements together with street trees appear to offer the best possibility to deal with urban warming in warm humid cities. The combined approach could eliminate the warm- ing effect due to the heat island phenomenon. The Hong Kong example (see Case Study 5.3) illustrates how existing high-rise districts can be retrofitted to exploit passive urban ventilation.
Passive methods to increase comfort and reduce energy loads through solar design include orienting street and public space layout to reduce solar gain during hot months, shading through the configuration of adjacent vegetation, orienting neighborhood configurations to the sun’s path to maximize daylight in ground floor living rooms, placing tall buildings to the north edges of a neighborhood to preserve solar potential for photovoltaic arrays, varying building heights and breaks in the building line to reduce shadowing and increase solar access during cold months, and maximizing use of cool surfaces and reflective roofs in hot climates. Figures 5.10, 5.11, and the Masdar example (Case Study 5.4) illustrate these approaches. Street-level ventilation for warm and humid climates is key, using approaches that do not necessarily require changing mor- phology. A simulation exercise of the likely urban warming effects of the planned urban growth trajectories in the warm, humid city of Colombo, Sri Lanka, indicates that there are sig- nificant differences in the likely warming rates between different urban growth trajectories (Emmanuel et al., 2007). A moderate increase in built cover (at an LCZ class of compact midrise) appears to lead to the least amount of warming. At the neighbor- hood scale, streets oriented to the prevailing wind directions with staggered building arrangements together with street trees appear to offer the best possibility to deal with urban warming in warm humid cities. The combined approach could eliminate the warm- ing effect due to the heat island phenomenon. The Hong Kong example (see Case Study 5.3) illustrates how existing high-rise districts can be retrofitted to exploit passive urban ventilation.
Case Study 5.1 Figure 1 Summer daytime temperature. Emmanuel and Kruger (2012) showed that even when urban growth had subsided, Glasgow’s local warming that results from urban morphology (increased built cover, lack of vegetation, pollution, anthropogenic heat generation) continues to generate local heat islands. Such heat islands are of the same order of magnitude as From its medieval ecclesiastical origins, Glasgow (originally Glaschu — ‘dear green place’) expanded into a major port in the 18th century, and, with the advent of the Industrial Revolution, added a massive industrial base to its already well-developed built fabric. However, the success of its industrial base could not withstand the pressures of globalization, and, by the early 20th century, the city had begun to lose population. This decline appears to have been arrested in recent years. The long history of growth, decline, and regrowth provides Glasgow a historic opportunity to recreate its “green” past.
Case Study 5.1 Figure 1 Summer daytime temperature. Emmanuel and Kruger (2012) showed that even when urban growth had subsided, Glasgow’s local warming that results from urban morphology (increased built cover, lack of vegetation, pollution, anthropogenic heat generation) continues to generate local heat islands. Such heat islands are of the same order of magnitude as From its medieval ecclesiastical origins, Glasgow (originally Glaschu — ‘dear green place’) expanded into a major port in the 18th century, and, with the advent of the Industrial Revolution, added a massive industrial base to its already well-developed built fabric. However, the success of its industrial base could not withstand the pressures of globalization, and, by the early 20th century, the city had begun to lose population. This decline appears to have been arrested in recent years. The long history of growth, decline, and regrowth provides Glasgow a historic opportunity to recreate its “green” past.
Case Study 5.1 Green Infrastructure as a Climate Change Adaptation Option for Overheating in Glasgow, UK Case Study 5.1 Figure 2 Extra green cover needed in reduction against green cover in Glasgow City Center to mitigate overheating. the predicted warming due to climate change by 2050. And the microscale variations are strongly related to local land cover/land- use patterns. MITIGATING URBAN OVERHEATING
Case Study 5.1 Green Infrastructure as a Climate Change Adaptation Option for Overheating in Glasgow, UK Case Study 5.1 Figure 2 Extra green cover needed in reduction against green cover in Glasgow City Center to mitigate overheating. the predicted warming due to climate change by 2050. And the microscale variations are strongly related to local land cover/land- use patterns. MITIGATING URBAN OVERHEATING
Case Study 5.1 Table 1 Alternative approaches to increasing green cover by 20% in Glasgow City Center. a swale or rain garden. Guidelines for preventing groundwater and soil contamination must be followed. = 0.2
Case Study 5.1 Table 1 Alternative approaches to increasing green cover by 20% in Glasgow City Center. a swale or rain garden. Guidelines for preventing groundwater and soil contamination must be followed. = 0.2
Case Study 5.2 Figure 1 Schematic of lightweight brick veneer wall with integrated phase-change materials (left), and without (right)
Case Study 5.2 Figure 1 Schematic of lightweight brick veneer wall with integrated phase-change materials (left), and without (right)
Case Study 5.2 Figure 2 Surface temperature profiles of two west-facing walls with and without phase-change materials.
Case Study 5.2 Figure 2 Surface temperature profiles of two west-facing walls with and without phase-change materials.
Case Study 5.3 Figure 1 The Urban Climatic (Planning Recommendation) Map of Hong Kong. The Planning Department of the Hong Kong SAR Government pro- duces the Hong Kong Urban Climatic Map System (PlanD, 2012) to provide an evidence-based tool for planning and decision making. Hong Kong is located on China’s south coast and situated in a sub- tropical climate region with hot and humid summers. As a high-den- sity city with a population of 7.3 million living on 25 square kilometers of land, Hong Kong has a hilly topography and 40% of the territory is classified as country-park, where development is prohibited; hence
Case Study 5.3 Figure 1 The Urban Climatic (Planning Recommendation) Map of Hong Kong. The Planning Department of the Hong Kong SAR Government pro- duces the Hong Kong Urban Climatic Map System (PlanD, 2012) to provide an evidence-based tool for planning and decision making. Hong Kong is located on China’s south coast and situated in a sub- tropical climate region with hot and humid summers. As a high-den- sity city with a population of 7.3 million living on 25 square kilometers of land, Hong Kong has a hilly topography and 40% of the territory is classified as country-park, where development is prohibited; hence
Case Study 5.3 Table 1 Planning and design measures to be taken into account in project planning.
Case Study 5.3 Table 1 Planning and design measures to be taken into account in project planning.
The UC-ReMap provides a strategic and comprehensive urban cli- matic planning framework and information platform for Hong Kong that can be also applied to other high-density cities. It helps to clarify and identify appropriate planning and design measures for the formulation of planning guidelines on matters related to urban climate and climate change, and it provides a strategic urban plan- ning and development process for future development (e.g., max- imizing the adaptation opportunities within urban climate planning zones (UCPZs) 3, 4, and 5) and accommodating comprehensive new development areas in UCPZ 2 with prudent planning and building design measures (PlanD, 2012). It also provides an urban climatic planning framework for reviewing outline zoning plans and formulating suitable planning parameters. Case Study 5.3 Figure 2 Building volume density study of the area (left); open spaces (blue) and air paths (red lines) suggested for the area (right), Hong Kong.
The UC-ReMap provides a strategic and comprehensive urban cli- matic planning framework and information platform for Hong Kong that can be also applied to other high-density cities. It helps to clarify and identify appropriate planning and design measures for the formulation of planning guidelines on matters related to urban climate and climate change, and it provides a strategic urban plan- ning and development process for future development (e.g., max- imizing the adaptation opportunities within urban climate planning zones (UCPZs) 3, 4, and 5) and accommodating comprehensive new development areas in UCPZ 2 with prudent planning and building design measures (PlanD, 2012). It also provides an urban climatic planning framework for reviewing outline zoning plans and formulating suitable planning parameters. Case Study 5.3 Figure 2 Building volume density study of the area (left); open spaces (blue) and air paths (red lines) suggested for the area (right), Hong Kong.
Case Study 5.4 Figure 1 Masdar, Carbon-Neutral Development Case Study: Abu Dhabi, UAE. Masdar City is an emerging clean-technology cluster located in what aims to be one of the world’s most sustainable urban developments powered by renewable energy. The project continues to be a work in progress. Located about 17 kilometers from downtown Abu Dhabi, the area is intended to host companies, researchers, and academics from across the globe, creating an international hub focused on renewable energy and clean technologies. The master plan is designed to be
Case Study 5.4 Figure 1 Masdar, Carbon-Neutral Development Case Study: Abu Dhabi, UAE. Masdar City is an emerging clean-technology cluster located in what aims to be one of the world’s most sustainable urban developments powered by renewable energy. The project continues to be a work in progress. Located about 17 kilometers from downtown Abu Dhabi, the area is intended to host companies, researchers, and academics from across the globe, creating an international hub focused on renewable energy and clean technologies. The master plan is designed to be
Case Study 5.4 Figure 3 Thermal imaging comparing streetscapes in Abu Dhabi and Masdar City. Case Study 5.4 Figure 2 Masdar wind tower.
Case Study 5.4 Figure 3 Thermal imaging comparing streetscapes in Abu Dhabi and Masdar City. Case Study 5.4 Figure 2 Masdar wind tower.
Case Study 5.4 Figure 4 Masdar field studies in the desert.
Case Study 5.4 Figure 4 Masdar field studies in the desert.
Table 5.1 Meteorological scales for planning. Source: Lutz Katzschner
Table 5.1 Meteorological scales for planning. Source: Lutz Katzschner
Figure 5.14 Urban climate planning and design process.
Figure 5.14 Urban climate planning and design process.
Figure 5.15 Urban design intervention — future climate scenario.
Figure 5.15 Urban design intervention — future climate scenario.

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In this selection, newly written for this edition of The City Reader, Stephen Wheeler, an associate professor of landscape architecture and environmental design at the University of California, Davis, addresses one of the most important threats to cities and towns around the world and what many consider the greatest challenge humanity has ever faced -global climate change. As Wheeler points out, carbon from greenhouse gases (GHG) is the biggest culprit, so planning low-emission or carbon-neutral cities for the future is a major urban planning challenge everywhere in the world. Wheeler argues that even meeting that very difficult urban planning goal will not be enough. Harmful effects of global climate change are already inevitable and in the coming decades urban planners must help communities mitigate the effects of global climate change that have already occurred or will occur despite best efforts now.

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Urban Solutions to Climate Change: An Overview of Latest Progress
Kuok Ho Daniel Tang

Academia Environmental Sciences and Sustainability, 2024

Urban centers are bearing the brunt of climate change. Meanwhile, they are important sources of greenhouse gases, particularly due to burgeoning transportation and high power demand for heating and electricity. This worsens the urban impacts of climate change. Urban solutions have emerged as feasible approaches to mitigate or adapt to climate change. This review aims to present an overview of the latest progress in various urban solutions to climate change. Urban solutions can generally be categorized into nature-based, technological, social, and integrated solutions. Nature-based solutions use natural ecosystems and processes, such as urban greening, green space, ecosystem restoration, and sustainable drainage systems, to address climate change problems. They could be vulnerable to the very climate challenges they address. Technological solutions encompass sustainable heating and cooling, innovative and green building materials, retro-reflective materials, cleaner modes of transportation, as well as big data and IoT devices for city planning. These solutions could be costly and resource-intensive. Social solutions involve promoting changes in behaviors and habits, which may require government and community intervention and engagement. They rely on political representation and social integration, which are sometimes lacking. Urban solutions are often integrated, combining two or all categories of solutions. Nature-based and technological solutions have been supported through urban greening and transportation plans that aim to encourage behaviors such as community-led greening and using of public transport. Techno-ecological approaches are evident in urban greening that embeds technology. Social elements are incorporated to garner inclusiveness and engagement. However, integration is inherently complex as it involves multiple stakeholders. Potential suggestions are community engagement, policymaking, government support, awareness-raising, and continuous research.

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Chapter 11 : Built Environment, Urban Systems, and Cities. Impacts, Risks, and Adaptation in the United States: The Fourth National Climate Assessment, Volume II
Susan Julius

2018

Impacts on Urban Quality of Life The opportunities and resources in urban areas are critically important to the health and well-being of people who work, live, and visit there. Climate change can exacerbate existing challenges to urban quality of life, including social inequality, aging and deteriorating infrastructure, and stressed ecosystems. Many cities are engaging in creative problem solving to improve quality of life while simultaneously addressing climate change impacts.

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Conceptualizing Urban Adaptation to Climate Change
Margaretha Breil

Review of Environment Energy and Economics Re3, 2012

Urban areas have particular sensitivities to climate change, and therefore adaptation to a warming planet represents a challenging new issue for urban policy makers in both the developed and developing world. Further to climate mitigation strategies implemented in various cities over the past 20 years, more recent efforts of urban management have also included actions taken to adapt to increasing temperatures, sea level and extreme events. Through the examination and comparison of seven cities, this paper identifies the various levels of administrative adaptation planning, the tools and information used in making policy choices, and the roles of governance and finance in urban adaptation to climate change. Lessons learned from these seven cases are presented to better inform the next generation of cities adapting to climate change.

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Urban climate science, planning, policy and investment challenges
Matthias Ruth

Urban Climate, 2012

The majority of the world's population is now living in urban areas, which together represent <1% of the Earth's surface. As populations and their assets continue to accumulate in urban areas, as their role in shaping local, regional and global economic and environmental processes continues to increase, and as climate change and other challenges continue to place people, infrastructures, institutions and ecosystems at risk, more attention needs to be given to the diverse processes that determine quality of life in urban areas.

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Climate change adaptation: Strategic planning and urban design practice
Hisham Abusaada

Remapping urban heat islands atlases in regenerative cities, 2022

The United Nations (UN) has proposed two actions against climate change between 2015 and 2021: "combat" in Goal 13 of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and "adaptation" in the 26th UN Climate Change Conference (the Conference of the Parties COP 26). This chapter aims to highlight pathways and actions for addressing and adapting to climate change at higher strategic levels and urban planning and design at the local level. In 32 authoritative texts, the snowball technique and content analysis were used to discover the interactions between people, nature, and climate change adaptation. The findings revealed that lower-level adaptation methods, such as urban design techniques, were ineffective in responding to people's actions in public areas. In terms of SDGs and COP 26, epistemological awareness of normative variables crucial to the relationship between people and nature in public spaces adds significantly to this endeavor.

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