Toward a Model for Marking up Non-SI Units and Measurements

Slovenščina 2.0: empirical, applied and interdisciplinary research

The modelling and encoding of polylexical units, i.e. recurrent sequences of lexemes that are perceived as independent lexical units, is a topic that has not been covered adequately and in sufficient depth by the Guidelines of the Text Encoding Initiative (TEI), a de facto standard for the digital representation of textual resources in the scholarly research community. In this paper, we use the Dictionary of the Portuguese Academy of Sciences as a case study for presenting our ongoing work on encoding polylexical units using TEI Lex-0, an initiative aimed at simplifying and streamlining the encoding of lexical data with TEI in order to improve interoperability. We introduce the notion of macro- and microstructural relevance to differentiate between polylexicals that serve as headwords for their own independent dictionary entries and those which appear inside entries for different headwords. We develop the notion of lexicographic transparency to distinguish between those units which ...

Lecture Notes in Computer Science (including subseries Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence and Lecture Notes in Bioinformatics), 2010

A markup language serves as a medium of communication for storing and publishing textual, numeric and other forms of data seamlessly. XML, the eXtensible Markup Language has become the lingua franca in web publishing. It is also a widely accepted standard for databases and document storage. There are many domain-specific markup languages designed using special XML tag sets. Standardization bodies and research communities may extend these to include additional semantics of areas within and related to the domain. This paper outlines the issues to be considered when extending domain-specific markup languages, namely, the motivation for extension, the semantic considerations, the syntactic constraints and other relevant aspects. Illustrating examples are given from the domains of Medicine, Finance and Materials Science. Particular emphasis in these examples is on the extension of the Materials Science Markup Language MatML to include the semantics of one sub-area, namely, the Heat Treat...

Lecture Notes in Computer Science, 2013

Ontologies provide a formal description of concepts and their relationships in a knowledge domain. The goal of ontology alignment is to identify semantically matching concepts and relationships across independently developed ontologies that purport to describe the same knowledge. In order to handle the widest possible class of ontologies, many alignment algorithms rely on terminological and structural methods, but the often fuzzy nature of concepts complicates the matching process. However, one area that should provide clear matching solutions due to its mathematical nature, is units of measurement. Several ontologies for units of measurement are available, but there has been no attempt to align them, notwithstanding the obvious importance for technical interoperability. We propose a general strategy to map these (and similar) ontologies by introducing MathML to accurately capture the semantic description of concepts specified therein. We provide mapping results for three ontologies, and show that our approach improves on lexical comparisons.

2011

Abstract The correct interpretation of markup semantics is necessary for the semantic interpretation of linguistic expressions that use markup in their structuring and for enabling sophisticated operation on markup documents, such as semantic validation, multi-format document conversion and searching on heterogeneous digital libraries. The semantics of XML-based markup languages is usually provided informally, for example through textual descriptions in the specification of the language.

2019

Domain-specific languages enable concise and precise formalization of domain concepts and promote direct employment by domain experts. Therefore, syntactic constructs are introduced to empower users to associate concepts and relationships with visual textual symbols. Model-based language engineering facilitates the description of concepts and relationships in an abstract manner. However, concrete representations are commonly attached to abstract domain representations, such as annotations in metamodels, or directly encoded into language grammar and thus introduce redundancy betweenmetamodel elements and grammar elements. In this work we propose an approach that enables autonomous development and maintenance of domain concepts and textual language notations in a distinctive and metamodel-agnostic manner by employing style models containing grammar rule templates and injection-based property selection. We provide an implementation and showcase the proposed notationspecification langua...

Text, Speech and Language Technology, 2010

The general markup language XML has played an outstanding role in the multiple ways of processing electronic documents, XML being used either in the design of interface structures or as a formal framework for the representation of structure or content-related properties of documents. This book in its 13 chapters discusses aspects of XML-based linguistic information modeling combining: methodological issues, especially with respect to text-related information modeling, applicationoriented research and issues of formal foundations. The contributions in this book are based on current research in Text Technology, Computational Linguistics and in the international domain of evolving standards for language resources. Recurrent themes in this book are markup languages, explored from different points of view, and topics of text-related information modeling. These topics have been core areas of the research Unit "Text-technological Information Modeling" (www.texttechnology.de) funded from 2002 to 2009 by the German Research Foundation (DFG). Positions developed in this book could also benefit from the presentations and discussion at the conference "Modelling Linguistic Information Resources" at the Center for Interdisciplinary Research (Zentrum für interdisziplinäre Forschung, ZiF) at Bielefeld, a center for advanced studies known for its international and interdisciplinary meetings and research. The editors would like to thank the DFG and ZiF for their financial support, the publisher, the series editors, the reviewers and those people that helped to prepare the manuscript, especially Carolin Kram, Nils Diewald, Jens Stegmann and Peter M. Fischer and last but not least, all of the authors.

LREC 2010, 2010

In this paper, we present ISO-TimeML, a revised and interoperable version of the temporal markup language, TimeML. We describe the changes and enrichments made, while framing the effort in a more general methodology of semantic annotation. In particular, we assume a principled distinction between the annotation of an expression and the representation which that annotation denotes. This involves not only the specification of an annotation language for a particular phenomenon, but also the development of a meta-model that allows one to interpret the syntactic expressions of the specification semantically.

Procedia Computer Science, 2020

Methods of automatic extraction and identification of properties, quantities and units of measurement from texts are considered. The developed ontology of properties and units of measurement includes both fundamental connections of properties and units of measurement and connections that show the formation of concepts. The technology of property identification is based on fact that semantically significant text elements extracted within the boundaries of one or several sentences forming the semantic neighborhood of the property are correlated with the corresponding components of the ontology, which allows to restore the missing semantic fragments or identify discrepancies in the designations. The results of experimental studies of the effectiveness of the developed tools are presented.

Proceedings of Balisage: The Markup Conference 2009, 2009

One of the most evident tenets of the literature on overlapping markup is that the philosophy of documents as trees (as dictated by meta-markup languages such as SGML and XML) is a simplification that sometimes fails and requires corrections. These corrections have been proposed at the markup level (e.g., milestones, segmentation), at the meta-markup level (e.g., LMNL, TexMecs, XCONCUR, etc.) or at level of the abstract model (e.g., GODDAG). Unfortunately full GODDAGs do not allow linearizations in general, and as such a restricted version of GODDAG, r-GODDAG, has been proposed that is guaranteed to be linearizable (in TexMecs) and still allows many nice features beyond trees. In this paper we discuss that the problem of linearizing more-than-hierarchical structures lies basically in the embedding of markup within content and that no such problem arises with an appropriate standoff approach, that is able to represent full GODDAGs without restrictions. This gives ample opportunities to deal with interesting markup features that are describable with GODDAGs but not with r-GODDAGs, such as non-contiguous elements and virtual elements. Besides, we discuss whether a specific constraint of full GODDAGs is really necessary once all residual hopes of embeddability are given up, and we further propose a minimal extension to GODDAG, genially called "extended GODDAG" (e-GODDAG) that, by removing the requirement for names in nonterminal nodes, adds support for additional interesting markup features such as content repetitions. In truth, e-GODDAGs are even less embeddable than full GODDAGs, but they are just as easily dealt with by using stand-off markup. We further propose a meta-syntax for non-embedded markup, called EARMARK, that can be used for stand-off annotations of textual content, and that naturally represents e-GODDAGs with fully W3C-compliant technologies. EARMARK is based on an ontologically precise definition of markup that instantiates the markup of a text document as an OWL document, and through appropriate OWL and SWRL characterizations it can define structures such as trees, r-GODDAGs, full GODDAGs and e-GODDAGs, and can be used to generate validity constraints (including co-constraints), and to verify adherence to content model patterns. As mentioned, in general the embedding of a full EARMARK document is not straightforward, but approaches can be taken in that direction: just like segmentation and fragmentation are strategies to embed in a strictly-hierarchical language a r-GODDAG-specific feature such as overlapping elements, similarly a number of strategies exist to provide embedding of GODDAG and e-GODDAG features in less expressive syntaxes. In the final part of the paper we discuss our wish to provide at the metalanguage level a series of embedding strategies of the non-hierarchical features of EARMARK, i.e. a number of language-independent mechanisms to express e-GODDAGs structures into XML (as well as in TexMecs and in LMNL) and that can be recognized as such (i.e., as strategies, as tricks) by tools and readers alike, especially for further uses of such documents.