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Title
Abstract
Figures
Aims of the Study and Hypotheses
Method
Results
Discussion
Theoretical and Practical Implications
Limitations and Future Directions
Conclusion
References
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Psychology
Cognitive Science

Gender-Fair Language in Job Advertisements

Profile image of Jana ValdrováJana Valdrová

2017, Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology

https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022116688085
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18 pages

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Abstract

The present study investigates whether and how the use of gender-fair language is related to linguistic, cultural, and socioeconomic differences between countries with grammatical gender languages. To answer this question, we analyzed job titles in online job advertisements from four European countries differing in achieved gender equality and egalitarian versus hierarchical cultural values (Switzerland, Austria, Poland, and Czech Republic). Results show that gender-fair job titles were more frequent in more egalitarian countries with higher levels of socioeconomic gender equality (Switzerland, Austria) than in countries with a higher acceptance of hierarchies and inequalities (Poland, Czech Republic). In the latter countries, gender-specific (masculine or feminine) job titles predominated. Moreover, gender-fair job titles were more prevalent in a female-dominated branch (health care) and a gender-balanced economic branch (food services) than in a male-dominated branch (construction...

Figures (6)
Table I. Country Information on Achieved Gender Equality and Percentage of Male Employees, in Total and According to Branches. Note. Power distance is a dimension of national culture as described by Hofstede, Hofstede, and Minkov (2010). Scores range from 0 to 100; 76 countries are ranked according to the acceptance of unequal power distribution. GGI is the Global Gender Gap Index annually published by the World Economic Forum (Hausmann, Tyson, & Zahidi, 2012). Equality scores range from 0 to I; 135 countries are ranked according to the extent of gender equality achieved. aGerman is the most widely spoken language in Switzerland; the statistics include employees with other native languages (i.e., French, Italian, Rhaeto-Romanic). >German-speaking sample. The French-speaking sample showed a higher acceptance of power distance (70, Rank 22-25).
Table I. Country Information on Achieved Gender Equality and Percentage of Male Employees, in Total and According to Branches. Note. Power distance is a dimension of national culture as described by Hofstede, Hofstede, and Minkov (2010). Scores range from 0 to 100; 76 countries are ranked according to the acceptance of unequal power distribution. GGI is the Global Gender Gap Index annually published by the World Economic Forum (Hausmann, Tyson, & Zahidi, 2012). Equality scores range from 0 to I; 135 countries are ranked according to the extent of gender equality achieved. aGerman is the most widely spoken language in Switzerland; the statistics include employees with other native languages (i.e., French, Italian, Rhaeto-Romanic). >German-speaking sample. The French-speaking sample showed a higher acceptance of power distance (70, Rank 22-25).
Table 2. Coding Categories and Examples for Each Language. Note. Gender-fair are all forms that address women and men equally, either by not differentiating for gender or by combining a masculine and a feminine form.
Table 2. Coding Categories and Examples for Each Language. Note. Gender-fair are all forms that address women and men equally, either by not differentiating for gender or by combining a masculine and a feminine form.
Table 3. Frequencies (and Percentages) of the Different Forms of Job Titles by Country and Branch. Note. n = number of job ads in the specific category.
Table 3. Frequencies (and Percentages) of the Different Forms of Job Titles by Country and Branch. Note. n = number of job ads in the specific category.
Figure |. Forms of job titles by country: Forms of gender-fair and gender-specific job titles used in job ads, adding up to 100% for each country.
Figure |. Forms of job titles by country: Forms of gender-fair and gender-specific job titles used in job ads, adding up to 100% for each country.
Republic combined). In line with the hypothesis, gender-fair job titles were more frequent than gender-specific job titles in the German-speaking countries (gender-fair: 79%, gender-specific: 21%), but less frequent than gender-specific job titles in the Slavic-speaking countries (gender- fair: 13%, gender-specific: 87%), y*(1) = 385.64, p < .001. The odds ratio (OR, i.e., German- speaking countries [gender-fair forms / gender-specific forms] / Slavic-speaking countries [gender-fair forms / gender-specific forms]) showed that gender-fair job titles in relation to gen- der-specific job titles were 17 times more likely to occur in German-speaking countries com- pared with Slavic-speaking countries.
Republic combined). In line with the hypothesis, gender-fair job titles were more frequent than gender-specific job titles in the German-speaking countries (gender-fair: 79%, gender-specific: 21%), but less frequent than gender-specific job titles in the Slavic-speaking countries (gender- fair: 13%, gender-specific: 87%), y*(1) = 385.64, p < .001. The odds ratio (OR, i.e., German- speaking countries [gender-fair forms / gender-specific forms] / Slavic-speaking countries [gender-fair forms / gender-specific forms]) showed that gender-fair job titles in relation to gen- der-specific job titles were 17 times more likely to occur in German-speaking countries com- pared with Slavic-speaking countries.
Note. This table presents odds ratios comparing language use between branches by country. aOdds ratios comparing gender-fair and masculine forms between branches by country. ’Odds ratios comparing gender-fair and combination forms between branches by country. Table 4. Odds Ratios.
Note. This table presents odds ratios comparing language use between branches by country. aOdds ratios comparing gender-fair and masculine forms between branches by country. ’Odds ratios comparing gender-fair and combination forms between branches by country. Table 4. Odds Ratios.

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Maria L. Medel

Journal of International Women's Studies, 2022

Current and past research confirms the existence of a gender gap that prevents women from earning the same salaries as men, having equal access to typically male sectors, and climbing the professional ladder to the highest positions of management. The separation of the sexes often starts at home or at school, with girls being led to choices of gender-stereotypical careers or domestic life. This needs to be tackled from various angles, and one tool for this is non-sexist language. Sexist language makes women invisible and secondary by referring to them in the masculine and has been proven to negatively affect women in different ways, especially in employment. The United Nations includes best practices and strategies for non-sexist language in the Sustainable Development Goal number 5: “achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls.” For the EU’s European Institute for Gender Equality, the goal of non-sexist language is to eliminate the ambiguous masculine and expressions that discriminate. Despite a concerted but inconsistent effort to eradicate sexist language by governments and international organisations, discrepancies in gender expression between languages do not necessarily require the application of different techniques. In an analysis of job vacancy titles of two international organisations, a variety of gender options was observed, with some languages showing a higher proportion of neutral-language forms. Our proposal for non-sexist drafting and translation of job advertisements calls for the systematic use of both genders alphabetically with variable profession nouns, and the use of the gender initials (f/m) after invariable, collective, and metonymic nouns, also in pronominal-gender languages like English. We believe that making women visible in vacancy titles will encourage female applications and establish mental connections that make women relate to the posts. Although gender specification of job advertisements might not be the only solution to closing the gender gap, it could contribute to the betterment of women in employment. More studies are necessary to show the advantages of applying non-sexist language in vacancies for the advancement of women in the labour market together with the adoption of simple rules in drafting and translation. https://vc.bridgew.edu/jiws/vol23/iss5/5

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The Influence of L2 English on Attitudes Towards Gender-Neutral Job Titles
Yousuf B. AlBader

International Journal of English Linguistics

This study examines the influence of L2 English on attitudes towards gender-neutral job titles. It aims to determine whether language influences perceptions of job titles. Data were collected via questionnaires from 67 participants aged 18-26 years, comprising American English native speakers, Arabic native speakers, and Kuwaiti learners of English. Results indicate that high-proficiency English learners tend to neutralize job titles instead of assigning gender markers, a behavior which is influenced by their exposure to English and cultural attitudes towards gender equality. Most native English speakers used neutral job titles instead of gender assignments. The two control groups demonstrated a significant difference in their responses, with Arabic monolinguals assigning gender markers based on the dominant gender in a particular profession. Additionally, language background and demographics affected these results. Attitudes towards gender markedness in job titles has received litt...

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Gender and Language in the Labour Market: Analysis of Job Advertisements in Slovenia Between 1958 and 2018
jasna mikic

Teorija in praksa, 2021

The present article explores the use of grammatical forms in job advertisements published over the past 60 years (1958, 1978, 1998 and 2018). A historical examination of the use of gender forms in employment is based on analysis of job advertisements published in the Slovenian language, and the particular socioeconomic context. The results show that the frequency of use of the masculine, feminine and neutral forms has not drastically altered over the decades. In general, feminine and neutral forms were used less frequently, and the masculine grammatical form consistently dominates. In 2018, the latter was seemingly 'neutralised' by adding the abbreviation M/F.

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Language and gender: Computerized text analyses predict gender ratios from organizational descriptions
Sverker Sikström

Frontiers in Psychology, 2023

Previous research has shown that language in job adverts implicitly communicates gender stereotypes, which, in turn, influence employees' perceived fit with the job. In this way, language both reflects and maintains a gender segregated job market. The aim of this study was to test whether, and how, language in organizational descriptions reflects gender segregation in the organizations by the use of computational text analyses. We analyzed large Swedish companies' organizational descriptions from LinkedIn (N = 409), testing whether the language in the organizational descriptions is associated with the organizations' employee gender ratio, and how organizational descriptions for organizations with a majority of women and men employees differ. The statistical analyses showed that language in the organizational descriptions predicted the employee gender ratio in organizations well. Word clouds depicting words that differentiate between organizations with a majority of women and men employees showed that the language of organizations with a higher percentage of women employees was characterized by a local focus and emphasis on within-organizations relations, whereas the language of organizations with a higher percentage of men employees was characterized by an international focus and emphasis on sales and customer relations. These results imply that the language in organizational descriptions reflects gender segregation and stereotypes that women are associated with local and men with global workplaces. As language communicates subtle signals in regards to what potential candidate is most sought after in recruitment situations, differences in organizational descriptions can hinder underrepresented gender groups to apply to these jobs. As a consequence, such practices may contribute to gender segregation on the job market.

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Related topics

  • Psychology
  • Cognitive Science
  • Cross Cultural Psychology

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    Analysing Gender Bias in IT Job Postings: A Pre-Study Based on Samples from the German Job Market
    Martin Kersting

    2020

    In Germany, as in many other industrial nations, there is currently a shortage of skilled workers in the IT sector, also known as the &quot;war for talents&quot;. It is becoming increasingly difficult for companies to find suitable personnel using traditional recruiting instruments. Against this background, but also due to legal requirements, it is becoming more and more important that job postings are formulated in such a way that they have the greatest possible impact and no group of suitable applicants feels excluded. This study presents an approach that can be used to measure the gender bias in job postings in particular. A respective tool could provide recruiters with an instrument to identify and prevent unwanted gender bias. In our study, the prototype of such a tool will be developed and initially applied to analyse job postings in the IT sector of the German job market in comparison to samples from the automotive and health care sectors. We present some key statistics of th...

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    Four Dimensions of Criticism Against Gender-Fair Language
    Marie Gustafsson Sendén

    Sex Roles

    The gender-neutral third-person pronoun singular hen was recently introduced in Swedish as a complement to she (hon) and he (han). The initiative to add hen initially received strong criticism. In the present study, we analyzed 208 arguments from 168 participants with critical attitudes toward hen. We used Blaubergs’ (1980) and Parks and Roberton’s (1998) taxonomies of critical arguments against past gender-fair language reforms in English in the 1970s and 1990s as a basis for coding the arguments. A majority of arguments (80.7%) could be coded into existing categories, indicating that criticisms of gender-fair language initiatives are similar across different times and cultural contexts. Two categories of arguments did not fit existing categories (19.3%): gender-neutral pronouns are distracting in communication and gender information is important in communication. Furthermore, we established four overarching dimensions that capture assumptions and beliefs underlying gender-fair lan...

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    Social Perception of Non-Binary Individuals
    Katarzyna Żółtak

    Archives of Sexual Behavior

    People can express their identity in different ways, one of which is through language. Non-binary individuals often speak in a gender-neutral way and use specific language forms. Language use not only reveals their identity but also can shape how others perceive them. The present study’s purpose was to analyze how non-binary people are perceived through the language they use. The research was conducted in Polish, a language that is especially challenging for non-binary individuals because it has many gender markers. To avoid using gendered forms, they often use a specific form of passive voice. In an experiment, participants (N = 130, 102 women, 28 men) read a gendered (feminine or masculine) text and a gender-neutral text with passive voice. Most gave a masculine name to the person in the neutral text, but addressed them in a gender-neutral way when asked to react to them in presented scenarios. The gender-neutral text was evaluated as being less comprehensible than the gendered te...

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