Academia.eduAcademia.edu

Outline

Title
Abstract
Figures
Introduction
Materials and Experimental Techniques
Composite Materials
Results and Discussion
Conclusions
References
All Topics
Engineering
Materials Science

Heat release of polymer composites in fire

Profile image of Quynh AnhQuynh Anh
https://doi.org/10.1016/J.COMPOSITESA.2005.01.030
visibility

…

description

15 pages

link

1 file

Abstract

The relationship between heat release rate and other fire reaction properties of fibre reinforced polymer composite materials is investigated. The heat release rate and fire reaction properties of thermoset matrix composites reinforced with combustible fibres (aramid, extended-chain polyethylene) or non-combustible fibres (glass, carbon) were determined over a range of heat flux levels using the oxygen consumption cone calorimeter technique. The fire reaction properties that were measured were time-to-ignition, smoke density, carbon monoxide yield, carbon dioxide yield, mass loss rate and total mass loss. It is discovered that these reaction properties (apart from ignition time) are linearly related to the heat release rate for composites containing non-combustible fibres. When the reinforcement is combustible, however, the heat release rate only appears to be related to the carbon monoxide yield, mass loss rate and (in some cases) smoke density. This study clearly shows the importance of the relationship between heat release rate with smoke density and carbon monoxide yield, the two reaction properties that influence the survival of humans in fire. q

Figures (24)
Details of the composites, reinforcements and resin matrix Table 1 was calculated as a percentage of the initial specimen mass. of the material is below the pyrolysis temperature of the organic matrix. Following this induction period, there is a rapid rise in the heat release rate due to the combustion of volatiles, in this case mainly low molecular weight hydrocarbons, near to the composite/fire interface. Following the peak heat release rate (PHRR), the HRR decreases progressively with time due to the formation and thickening of a surface char layer that slows the decomposition reaction rate in the underlying material. The HRR also declines as a result of the declining resin content in the sample. Eventually the heat release rate becomes negligible, as the last of the resin matrix is decomposed.
Details of the composites, reinforcements and resin matrix Table 1 was calculated as a percentage of the initial specimen mass. of the material is below the pyrolysis temperature of the organic matrix. Following this induction period, there is a rapid rise in the heat release rate due to the combustion of volatiles, in this case mainly low molecular weight hydrocarbons, near to the composite/fire interface. Following the peak heat release rate (PHRR), the HRR decreases progressively with time due to the formation and thickening of a surface char layer that slows the decomposition reaction rate in the underlying material. The HRR also declines as a result of the declining resin content in the sample. Eventually the heat release rate becomes negligible, as the last of the resin matrix is decomposed.
Fig. 1. The cone calorimeter used to measure the fire reaction properties. Fig. 3 presents typical HRR curves at 50 kW/m* for vinyl ester composites reinforced with polyethylene and aramid fibres. These curves are very similar in profile to those with other polymer matrices (ie. epoxy, phenolic). The curves for the polyethylene and aramid composites are substantially different from each other and from the profile shown in Fig. 2 for the non-combustible fibre composite. The curve of the composites reinforced with polyethylene shows an initial peak in heat release rate, and this is attributed to the decomposition of fibres close to the surface. The second
Fig. 1. The cone calorimeter used to measure the fire reaction properties. Fig. 3 presents typical HRR curves at 50 kW/m* for vinyl ester composites reinforced with polyethylene and aramid fibres. These curves are very similar in profile to those with other polymer matrices (ie. epoxy, phenolic). The curves for the polyethylene and aramid composites are substantially different from each other and from the profile shown in Fig. 2 for the non-combustible fibre composite. The curve of the composites reinforced with polyethylene shows an initial peak in heat release rate, and this is attributed to the decomposition of fibres close to the surface. The second
Fabrication conditions of the composite specimens profile to that presented in Fig. 2. The heat release rate was substantially higher for composites with a polyester, vinyl ester or epoxy matrix, compared to those with a phenolic matrix. The HRR results for the composites reinforced with glass fibres are presented in Brown and Mathys [13].
Fabrication conditions of the composite specimens profile to that presented in Fig. 2. The heat release rate was substantially higher for composites with a polyester, vinyl ester or epoxy matrix, compared to those with a phenolic matrix. The HRR results for the composites reinforced with glass fibres are presented in Brown and Mathys [13].
Fig. 2. Typical heat release rate curve for a non-combustible fibre composite. The curve is for a woven glass/vinyl ester composite tested at the heat flux of 50 kW/m*. larger peak 1s Caused by the combined heat release trom the fibres and matrix. The polyethylene fibres at the surface release heat before the polymer matrix because of their lower pyrolysis temperature. UHMW polyethylene begins to decompose in an inert atmosphere at about 290 °C whereas the decomposition temperature of the vinyl ester matrix is about 350 °C [22,23]. The aramid curve in Fig. 3b shows an initial peak due to decomposition of the polymer matrix near the hot surface, followed by a small second peak also due to the polymer matrix near the surface. As opposed to the polyethylene fibres, the aramid reinforcement has a higher pyrolysis temperature (T=500 °C) than the vinyl ester, and therefore the matrix releases heat before the fibres [24]. A third broad peak is observed in the heat release-time profile, and this is due to decomposition of both the polymer matrix and aramid fibres. It is also seen that the heat release rates for the composite containing aramid fibres is, on average, much lower. This is because the decomposition of aramid yields a much lower amount of flammable volatiles than polyethylene fibres. Based on the mass loss data
Fig. 2. Typical heat release rate curve for a non-combustible fibre composite. The curve is for a woven glass/vinyl ester composite tested at the heat flux of 50 kW/m*. larger peak 1s Caused by the combined heat release trom the fibres and matrix. The polyethylene fibres at the surface release heat before the polymer matrix because of their lower pyrolysis temperature. UHMW polyethylene begins to decompose in an inert atmosphere at about 290 °C whereas the decomposition temperature of the vinyl ester matrix is about 350 °C [22,23]. The aramid curve in Fig. 3b shows an initial peak due to decomposition of the polymer matrix near the hot surface, followed by a small second peak also due to the polymer matrix near the surface. As opposed to the polyethylene fibres, the aramid reinforcement has a higher pyrolysis temperature (T=500 °C) than the vinyl ester, and therefore the matrix releases heat before the fibres [24]. A third broad peak is observed in the heat release-time profile, and this is due to decomposition of both the polymer matrix and aramid fibres. It is also seen that the heat release rates for the composite containing aramid fibres is, on average, much lower. This is because the decomposition of aramid yields a much lower amount of flammable volatiles than polyethylene fibres. Based on the mass loss data
Fig. 4. TGA curves for the (a) polymers and (b) organic fibres.
Fig. 4. TGA curves for the (a) polymers and (b) organic fibres.
Correlation coefficient between the peak heat release rate (PHRR) and the average heat release rate (AHRR) for the different types of fibre composite materials This table corresponds to the data plotted in Fig. 5.
Correlation coefficient between the peak heat release rate (PHRR) and the average heat release rate (AHRR) for the different types of fibre composite materials This table corresponds to the data plotted in Fig. 5.
Fig. 5. Plot of AHRR against PHRR for the composites and their combustible fibres and resins.
Fig. 5. Plot of AHRR against PHRR for the composites and their combustible fibres and resins.
Fig. 6. Plot of AHRR against PHRR for the aramid composites tested at different incident heat fluxes.
Fig. 6. Plot of AHRR against PHRR for the aramid composites tested at different incident heat fluxes.
Fig. 7. Plot of AHRR against PHRR for the composites reinforced with woven glass fibres tested at different incident heat fluxes.
Fig. 7. Plot of AHRR against PHRR for the composites reinforced with woven glass fibres tested at different incident heat fluxes.
Fig. 9. Plot of average SEA against AHRR for the composites. a general linear increase with heat release rate in Fig. 9, although the rate of increase is much lower for the composites containing polyethylene fibres. Presumably this is because of the higher heat release rate due to the increased yield of flammable volatiles from both the polyethylene fibres and polymer matrix. Table 4 shows the linear correlation coefficient values between SEA and the peak and average heat release rates. The linear correlation coefficient values for the glass, carbon and polyethylene fibre composites are above 0.88, indicating that the heat release rate of these materials has a strong relationship to smoke density. It is believed that this relationship exists because the endothermic decomposition The dependence of smoke density on HRR for composites with non-combustible fibres was investigated further by analysing published smoke data for other types of composite reinforced with glass or carbon fibres. Fig. 10 presents a compilation of our smoke data with data by Sorathia [6] for various types of thermoset and thermo- plastic matrix composites. Despite some scatter (particu- larly for the glass/BMI), there is a general increase in SEA with AHRR, with a correlation coefficient of 0.78.
Fig. 9. Plot of average SEA against AHRR for the composites. a general linear increase with heat release rate in Fig. 9, although the rate of increase is much lower for the composites containing polyethylene fibres. Presumably this is because of the higher heat release rate due to the increased yield of flammable volatiles from both the polyethylene fibres and polymer matrix. Table 4 shows the linear correlation coefficient values between SEA and the peak and average heat release rates. The linear correlation coefficient values for the glass, carbon and polyethylene fibre composites are above 0.88, indicating that the heat release rate of these materials has a strong relationship to smoke density. It is believed that this relationship exists because the endothermic decomposition The dependence of smoke density on HRR for composites with non-combustible fibres was investigated further by analysing published smoke data for other types of composite reinforced with glass or carbon fibres. Fig. 10 presents a compilation of our smoke data with data by Sorathia [6] for various types of thermoset and thermo- plastic matrix composites. Despite some scatter (particu- larly for the glass/BMI), there is a general increase in SEA with AHRR, with a correlation coefficient of 0.78.
Fig. 8. Plot of AHRR against PHRR for a wide variety of glass and carbon reinforced composites containing thermoset or thermoplastic resins
Fig. 8. Plot of AHRR against PHRR for a wide variety of glass and carbon reinforced composites containing thermoset or thermoplastic resins
This table corresponds to the data plotted in Fig. 9. Linear correlation coefficients for smoke specific extinction area (SEA) against the heat release properties for the different types of fibre composite materials
This table corresponds to the data plotted in Fig. 9. Linear correlation coefficients for smoke specific extinction area (SEA) against the heat release properties for the different types of fibre composite materials
Fig. 10. Compilation of data showing relationship between average smoke specific extinction area and average heat release rate for various thermoset anc thermoplastic matrix composites reinforced with non-combustible fibres. The gas products released by a decomposing composite depend on the chemical nature of the organic constituents, oxygen availability, and the temperature of the fire. Tewerson and Macaione [32], for example, have shown that polyester matrix composites can release a mixture of gases that include CO, COs, low molecular weight organics such as propylene, benzene, toluene and styrene, and organic ring compounds including aromatic C—H and aromatic C—H-O. As another example, phenolic laminates yield, in addition to water, CO, CO», toluene, benzene and various aromatic compounds. While the types and amounts of the gas products can vary between materials, all polymer composites release CO and CO; [5,6,15,19,29,32]. CO is a major safety concern because it is lethal at a relatively low concentration, with human death occurring within one hour at a concentration of about 1500 ppm. Babrauskas [3] suggests that the yield of CO Fig. 12 shows that the average yield of CO, gas is not as strongly related as the CO yield on the heat release rate. The CO, yields for all the composites fall within the limits of ~ 1-2 kg/kg, and appear to be independent or only weakly related to the heat release rate. This seems to indicate that the mechanisms controlling the CO, yield are complex
Fig. 10. Compilation of data showing relationship between average smoke specific extinction area and average heat release rate for various thermoset anc thermoplastic matrix composites reinforced with non-combustible fibres. The gas products released by a decomposing composite depend on the chemical nature of the organic constituents, oxygen availability, and the temperature of the fire. Tewerson and Macaione [32], for example, have shown that polyester matrix composites can release a mixture of gases that include CO, COs, low molecular weight organics such as propylene, benzene, toluene and styrene, and organic ring compounds including aromatic C—H and aromatic C—H-O. As another example, phenolic laminates yield, in addition to water, CO, CO», toluene, benzene and various aromatic compounds. While the types and amounts of the gas products can vary between materials, all polymer composites release CO and CO; [5,6,15,19,29,32]. CO is a major safety concern because it is lethal at a relatively low concentration, with human death occurring within one hour at a concentration of about 1500 ppm. Babrauskas [3] suggests that the yield of CO Fig. 12 shows that the average yield of CO, gas is not as strongly related as the CO yield on the heat release rate. The CO, yields for all the composites fall within the limits of ~ 1-2 kg/kg, and appear to be independent or only weakly related to the heat release rate. This seems to indicate that the mechanisms controlling the CO, yield are complex
Fig. 11. Plots of AHRR against the average CO yield for the composites.
Fig. 11. Plots of AHRR against the average CO yield for the composites.
Fig. 12. Plot of AHRR against the average CO yield for the composites. The relationship between the peak heat release rate and the peak yield rates of CO and CO, gases from the composites was also investigated. A strong correlation between the PHRR and peak gas yields for CO and CO, was observed for both the woven glass and chopped glass fibre composites. For example, Fig. 13 shows that the peak yields of CO and CO, increased at a linear rate with the PHRR for the woven glass composites. In this material, the PHRR is a measure of the maximum rate of thermal decomposition of the polymer matrix. It is to be expected that the maximum It is interesting to note, however, that the linear correlation coefficient values in Table 5 for the composites with non-combustible fibres are positive whereas the values for the composites with combustible fibres are negative, suggesting that for these materials a reduction in the CO,
Fig. 12. Plot of AHRR against the average CO yield for the composites. The relationship between the peak heat release rate and the peak yield rates of CO and CO, gases from the composites was also investigated. A strong correlation between the PHRR and peak gas yields for CO and CO, was observed for both the woven glass and chopped glass fibre composites. For example, Fig. 13 shows that the peak yields of CO and CO, increased at a linear rate with the PHRR for the woven glass composites. In this material, the PHRR is a measure of the maximum rate of thermal decomposition of the polymer matrix. It is to be expected that the maximum It is interesting to note, however, that the linear correlation coefficient values in Table 5 for the composites with non-combustible fibres are positive whereas the values for the composites with combustible fibres are negative, suggesting that for these materials a reduction in the CO,
Linear correlation coefficients for (a) CO and (b) CO, yields against the heat release properties for the different types of fibre composite materials This table corresponds to the data plotted in Figs. 11 and 12. Table 5
Linear correlation coefficients for (a) CO and (b) CO, yields against the heat release properties for the different types of fibre composite materials This table corresponds to the data plotted in Figs. 11 and 12. Table 5
Fig. 13. Plot of PHRR against the peak yields of CO and CO) gases from the woven glass composites. Table 7 gives the linear correlation coefficients between the ignition time and the PHRR and AHRR values, and for
Fig. 13. Plot of PHRR against the peak yields of CO and CO) gases from the woven glass composites. Table 7 gives the linear correlation coefficients between the ignition time and the PHRR and AHRR values, and for
Linear correlation coefficients for ignition time against the heat release properties for the different types of fibre composite materials This table corresponds to the data plotted in Fig. 14. Table 7
Linear correlation coefficients for ignition time against the heat release properties for the different types of fibre composite materials This table corresponds to the data plotted in Fig. 14. Table 7
Linear correlation coefficients for the peak yields of CO and CO, gases with the peak heat release rates for the different types of fibre composite materials This table corresponds to the data plotted in Fig. 13. Table 6
Linear correlation coefficients for the peak yields of CO and CO, gases with the peak heat release rates for the different types of fibre composite materials This table corresponds to the data plotted in Fig. 13. Table 6
Linear correlation coefficients for total mass loss against the heat release properties for the different types of fibre composite materials This table corresponds to the data plotted in Fig. 15.
Linear correlation coefficients for total mass loss against the heat release properties for the different types of fibre composite materials This table corresponds to the data plotted in Fig. 15.
Fig. 15. Plots of AHRR against total mass loss for the (a) combustible fibre composites and (b) non-combustible fibre composites
Fig. 15. Plots of AHRR against total mass loss for the (a) combustible fibre composites and (b) non-combustible fibre composites
Fig. 16. Plots of (a) PHRR against peak mass loss rate and (b) AHRR against average mass loss rate for the composites
Fig. 16. Plots of (a) PHRR against peak mass loss rate and (b) AHRR against average mass loss rate for the composites

Related papers

Review of fire structural modelling of polymer composites
S. Feih, Z. Mathys

Composites Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing, 2009

This paper presents a critical review of research progress in modelling the structural response of polymer matrix composites exposed to fire. Models for analysing the thermal, chemical, physical, and failure processes that control the structural responses of laminates and sandwich composite materials in fire are reviewed. Models for calculating the residual structural properties of composites following fire are also described. Progress towards validation of the models by experimental characterisation of the structural properties of composites during and following fire is assessed. Deficiencies in the fire structural models are identified in the paper, which provide the focus for future research in the field.

View PDFchevron_right
Thermo Mechanical Analysis of Composite Material Exposed to Fire
Alon Davidy

2012

A large amount of research has been performed to characterize the combustion properties and reduce the flammability of composite materials, although less is known about the structural behavior of composites in fire. Several studies have examined the effect of high temperature or fire on the load-bearing properties of polymer laminates and sandwich composites. This paper presents thermomechanical models for predicting the strength of polymer laminates loaded in tension or compression exposed to one-sided radiant heating by fire. The models predict the temperature rise and through-thickness temperature profile in a hot decomposing laminate exposed to fire. The models assume that one side of a laminate beam is evenly heated at a constant radiant heat flux. Calculation of the fire resistance demands determination of temperature distribution in the cross-section (heat-exposure model) and analysis of mechanical responses of the structure exposed to increased temperature (structural respon...

View PDFchevron_right
Thermal Stability, Fire Performance, and Mechanical Properties of Natural Fibre Fabric-Reinforced Polymer Composites with Different Fire Retardants
Bohumil Kasal

Polymers

In this study, ammonium polyphosphate (APP) and aluminum hydroxide (ALH) with different mass contents were used as fire retardants (FRs) on plant-based natural flax fabric-reinforced polymer (FFRP) composites. Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), limited oxygen index (LOI), and the Underwriters Laboratories (UL)-94 horizontal and vertical tests were carried out for evaluating the effectiveness of these FR treatments. Flat-coupon tensile test was performed to evaluate the effects of FR treatment on the mechanical properties of the FFRP composites. For both fire retardants, the results showed that the temperature of the thermal decomposition and the LOI values of the composites increased as the FR content increases. Under the UL-94 vertical test, the FFRP composites with 20% and 30% APP (i.e., by mass content of epoxy polymer matrix) were self-extinguished within 30 and 10 s following the removal of the flame without any burning drops, respectively. However, the mechanical tensile tests ...

View PDFchevron_right
Damage and Failure Modelling of Fibre-Polymer Composites in Fire
B. Lattimer

This keynote paper presents a critical review of research progress in modelling the damage and failure of polymer matrix composites exposed to fire. Models for analysing the thermal, chemical and physical processes that control the structural response and failure of composite materials in fire are briefly reviewed.

View PDFchevron_right
Fire Behavior of bio-sourced composites under Varied Heat Flux Levels
raphael ogabi

Proceedings of the World Congress on Momentum, Heat and Mass Transfer, 2024

This study aims to enhance the understanding of the fire behavior of bio-sourced composite materials for potential applications in aeronautics and automobiles. Experimental tests were conducted using the NexGen burner, designed according to FAA requirements for fire certification, and a cone calorimeter to assess medium-scale fire behavior. The research also focused on developing flax and banana-reinforced Greenpoxy composite materials, addressing concerns related to the non-biodegradable nature of synthetic composites and global warming. The green biocomposites manufactured through the Vacuum Assisted Resin Transfer Molding (VARTM) method, underwent thermal-physical characterization. Thermal degradation studies involved three heat flow densities (20, 35, and 50 kW/m²), analyzing fire performance indices, mass loss, surface temperatures, and gaseous emissions. The results revealed that biocomposites exhibited distinct thermo-physical behavior on medium and large scales, with flax-based materials showing superior thermal properties on a medium scale and banana-based materials demonstrating the opposite but interesting trend on a large scale. The study highlighted the size-dependent nature of bio-sourced material thermal properties. This research contributes valuable insights into the fire performance of bio-sourced composites, addressing critical aspects of materials.

View PDFchevron_right
The Integrity of Polymer Composites during and after Fire
Craig Gardiner

Journal of Composite Materials, 2004

This paper reports on changes to the mechanical properties of woven glass laminates with polyester, vinyl ester and phenolic resins during fire exposure. Two sets of experiments were carried out. First, unstressed laminates were exposed to a constant one-sided heat flux (50 kW m 2) for various times, and the residual post-fire strength at room temperature was reported. In a second series of experiments, laminates were tested under load. The times corresponding to a given loss of properties were 2-3 times shorter than in the previous case. It was found in both cases that modes of loading involving compressive stress were more adversely affected by fire exposure than those involving tension. A simple ‘two-layer’ model is proposed, in which the laminate is assumed to comprise (i) an unaffected layer with virgin properties and (ii) a heat-affected layer with zero properties. For residual properties after fire, the ‘effective’ thickness of undamaged laminate was calculated using this mod...

View PDFchevron_right
Cone calorimetric fire properties and thermal analysis of polyester-banana peduncle fibre composite fused with bio-fire retardant additive
Dr EZEH E R N E S T MBAMALU

Bulletin of the National Research Centre

Background Lately, thermoplastic and thermoset polymers are integrated with natural fillers to harvest composites. Due to an excellent property profile, these composites find wide applications in engineering fields. This research work aimed to investigate the parameters that influence the thermal degradation of Polyester-Banana peduncle fibre-reinforced composite incorporated with cow horn ash particle (CHAp) as a fire retardant additive and optimize the total heat produced for the smaller the better. The major instruments used in this study were cone calorimeter and the thermogravimetric analyser. Result The parameters considered were time, reinforcement type, and weight per cent of reinforcement material. The composites were made by varying the ratios of CHAp and BPF in the polyester matrix from 0:0, 2.5:2.5, 5:5 and 7.5:7.5 and 10:10 weight per cent. The flammability properties of the developed composites were examined, using a cone calorimeter. The controlling parameters were an...

View PDFchevron_right
Mechanical performance of heat/fire damaged novel flame retardant glass-reinforced epoxy composites
peter myler

Composites Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing, 2003

Novel glass-reinforced epoxy composites containing a phosphate-based intumescent and inherently flame retardant (cellulosic (Visil, Sateri) and phenol-formaldehyde (Kynol)) fibres have been fabricated. These components are added both as additives in pulverized form and as fibre interdispersed with intumescent as a fabric scrim for partial replacement of glass fibre. Fire testing has been performed using a cone calorimeter at an incident heat flux of 50 kW/m 2 and the results have shown that introduction of the intumescent/FR fibre to the matrix can significantly reduce the peak heat release values and smoke intensities evolved by composites. Mechanical testing in tensile and flexural modes of these samples have shown that inclusion of the intumescent/fibre system does not adversely influence their tensile and flexural properties. The effect of heat on mechanical properties has been observed by heating the samples in a furnace at 400 0 C for 5 minutes and tested for their flexural and tensile strength retentions. The charred samples remaining after cone exposure were also tested for stiffness test. Some of the samples retained up to 21% of the initial stiffness after being exposed to high heat flux in the cone calorimeter whereas, the control sample was rendered unusable after cone calorimeter exposure.

View PDFchevron_right
Post-Fire Properties of Composites
Craig Gardiner

Solid Mechanics and Its Applications

View PDFchevron_right
Fire Behavior of Wood-Based Composite Materials
Rhoda Afriyie Mensah

Polymers, 2021

Wood-based composites such as wood plastic composites (WPC) are emerging as a sustainable and excellent performance materials consisting of wood reinforced with polymer matrix with a variety of applications in construction industries. In this context, wood-based composite materials used in construction industries have witnessed a vigorous growth, leading to a great production activity. However, the main setbacks are their high flammability during fires. To address this issue, flame retardants are utilized to improve the performance of fire properties as well as the flame retardancy of WPC material. In this review, flame retardants employed during manufacturing process with their mechanical properties designed to achieve an enhanced flame retardancy were examined. The addition of flame retardants and manufacturing techniques applied were found to be an optimum condition to improve fire resistance and mechanical properties. The review focuses on the manufacturing techniques, applicati...

View PDFchevron_right

References (33)

  1. Babrauskas V, Peacock RD. Heat release rate: the single most important variable in fire hazard. Fire Safety J 1992;18:255-72.
  2. Babrauskas V. Why was the fire so big? HHR: The role of heat release rate in described fires Fire Arson Investig 1997;47:54-7.
  3. Babrauskas V. The generation of CO in bench-scale fire tests and the prediction for real-scale fires. Proc Int Conf Fire Mater 1992; 155-77.
  4. J.E. Brown, E. Braun, W.H. Twilley., Cone Calorimeter Evaluation of the Flammability of Composite Materials, NBSIR, (1988) 88-3733
  5. Hume J. Assessing the fire performance characteristics of GRP composites. Int Conf Mater Des Against Fire, London 1992;11-15.
  6. U. Sorathia, Flammability and fire safety of composite materials, Proceedings of the 1st International Workshop on Composite Materials for Offshore Operations, Houston, Texas, 26-28 Oct 1993, pp. 309-317.
  7. Egglestone GT, Turley DM. Flammability of GRP for use in ship superstructures. Fire Mater 1994;18:255-60.
  8. Scudamore MJ. Fire performance studies on glass-reinforced plastic laminates. Fire Mater 1994;18:313-25.
  9. Brown JR, Fawell PD, Mathys Z. Fire-hazard assessment of extended- chain polyethylene and aramid composites by cone calorimetry. Fire Mater 1994;18:167-72.
  10. Gibson AG, Hume J. Fire performance of composite panels for large marine structures. Plastics, Rubbers Compos Proc Applic 1995;23: 175-83.
  11. Ohlemiller TJ, Cleary TG. Upward flame spread on composite materials Fire and Polymers II.: American Chemical Society; 1995.
  12. Brown JR, St John NA. Fire-retardant low-temperature-cured phenolic resins and composites. TRIP 1996;4:416-20.
  13. Brown JR, Mathys Z. Reinforcement and matrix effects on the combustion properties of glass reinforced polymer composites. Composites 1997;28A:675-81.
  14. Hshieh F-Y, Beeson D. Flammability testing of flame-retarded epoxy composites and phenolic composites. Fire Mater 1997;21:41-9.
  15. Sastri SB, Armistead JP, Keller TM, Sorathia U. Flammability characteristics of phthalonitrile composites. Proceedings of the 42th International SAMPE Symposium 1997;May 4-8:1032-8.
  16. Le Bras M, Bourbigot S, Mortaigne B, Cordellier G. Comparative study of the fire behaviour of glass-fibre reinforced unsaturated polyesters using a cone calorimeter. Polym Polym Compos 1998;6: 535-9.
  17. Lin B. Cyanate esters with improved fire resistance. Proc 44th Int SAMPE Symp 1999;23-27:1424-30.
  18. Sorathia U, Gracik T, Ness J, Blum M, Le A, Scholl B, Long G. Fire safety of marine composites. Proc 8th Int Conf Marine Applic Compos Mater, 14-16 March, Florida 2000.
  19. Koo JH, Muskopf B, Venumbaka S, Van Dine R, Spencer B, Sorathia U. Flammability properties of polymer composites for marine applications. Proceedings of the 32nd International SAMPE Technical Conference 2000;5-9:136.
  20. Sorathia U, Lyon R, Ohlemiller T, Griener A. A review of fire test methods and criteria for composites. SAMPE J 1997;33:23-31.
  21. Babrauskas V. The cone calorimeter. In: DiNenno PJ, Drysdale D, Beyler CL, Walton WD, Custer RLP, Hall JR, Watts JM, editors. SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineer- ing. Bethesda, Maryland: Society of Fire Protection Engineers; 2002. p. 3-63 p. 3-81.
  22. Coneas JA, Marcilla A, Font R, Caballero JA. Thermogravimetric studies on the thermal decomposition of polyethylene. J Anal Appl Pyrolysis 1996;36:1-15.
  23. Regnier N, Mortaigne B. Analysis by pyrolysis/gas chromatograhy/- mass spectrometry of glass fibre/vinylester thermal degradation products. Polym Degrad Stability 1995;49:419-28.
  24. Bourbigot S, Flambard X, Poutch F. Study of the thermal degradation of high performance fibres-application to polybenzazole and p-aramid fibres'. Polym Stability Degrad 2001;74:283-90.
  25. Bansal RJ, Mittal J, Singh P. Thermal stability and degradation studies of polyester resins. J Appl Polym Sci 1989;37:1901-8.
  26. Vogt J. Thermal analysis of epoxy-resins: identification of decompo- sition products. Thermochim Acta 1985;85:407-10.
  27. Arii T, Ichihara S, Nakagawa H, Fujii N. A kinetic study of the thermal decomposition of polyesters by controlled-rate thermogravi- metry. Thermochim Acta 1998;319:139-49.
  28. Knop A, Scheib W. Chemistry and Application of Phenolic Resins. Berlin: Springer-Verlag; 1979.
  29. Hunter J, Forsdyke KL. Phenolic glass fiber-reinforced plastic and its recent applications. Polym Compos 1989;2:169-85.
  30. Sorathia U, Dapp T, Kerr J. Flammability characteristics of composites for shipboard and submarine internal applications. Proc 36th Int SAMPE Symp, CA 1991;1868-78.
  31. Sevart JL, Griffin OH, Gu ¨rdal Z, Warner G, Flammability A. toxicity of materials for marine vehicles. Naval Eng J 1990;45-54.
  32. Tewarson A, Macaione DP. Polymers and composites-an examination of fire spread and generation of heat and fire products. J Fire Sci 1993; 11:421-41.
  33. Mouritz AP, Gibson AG, Wu Y, Mathys CPZ. Validation of the Gibson model for the fire reaction properties of fibre-polymer composites. Fire Mater 2005 in press.

Related papers

Thermomechanical modelling the fire properties of fibre–polymer composites
Craig Gardiner

Composites Part B: Engineering, 2004

Simple-to-use models are presented in this paper for determining the residual tension, compression and flexural properties of burnt fibre reinforced polymer composite materials following a fire. The post-fire mechanical properties are calculated using analytical equations that combine the properties of the fire-damaged (i.e. char) and undamaged regions of a composite. Fire tests were performed on composites containing carbon, glass or Kevlar fibres with an epoxy, polyester, vinyl ester or phenolic resin matrix to assess the accuracy of the models. The composites were tested to a wide range of fire conditions with temperatures from 525 to 850 8C for times up to 30 min. It is found that the post-fire properties drop rapidly with increasing heat flux and duration of a fire due to the thermal degradation of the polymer matrix. It is shown that the reduction to the post-fire properties of the burnt composites can be accurately determined using the models. In almost all test cases, the agreement between the calculated and measured residual mechanical properties is within 10%.

View PDFchevron_right
A Study of Thermal Degradation and Fire Behaviour of Polymer Composites and Their Gaseous Emission Assessment
raphael ogabi

Energies

The use of polymer composite materials in the aeronautics and automotive sectors has increased dramatically, and their fire behaviour has become a critical parameter in terms of fire safety. On this premise, it is critical to demonstrate that these composite materials constitute elements whose safety justifies a high level of confidence. This is based on their combustibility and the rate at which flammable and toxic gaseous species are emitted. Thus, strict fire safety regulations are enforced by the relevant authorities concerned because of their potential fire risk. This study analysed papers published between 1970 and 2021 that described the devices used to characterise the thermal behaviour of composite materials at various scales. The objective was to highlight the thermophysical phenomena, making it possible to accurately assess the flammability and thermal stability of polymer composite materials. The results of this research reveal that the small-scale facilities provide det...

View PDFchevron_right
Tensile Strength Modeling of Glass Fiber—Polymer Composites in Fire
Z. Mathys

Journal of Composite Materials, 2007

A thermal-mechanical model is presented to calculate the tensile strength and time-to-failure of glass fiber reinforced polymer composites in fire. The model considers the main thermal processes and softening (mechanical) processes of fiberglass composites in fire that ensure an accurate calculation of tensile strength and failure time. The thermal component of the model considers the effects of heat conduction, matrix decomposition and volatile out-gassing on the temperature—time response of composites. The mechanical component of the model considers the tensile softening of the polymer matrix and glass fibers in fire, with softening of the fibers analyzed as a function of temperature and heating time. The model can calculate the tensile strength of a hot, decomposing composite exposed to fire up to the onset of flaming combustion. The thermal-mechanical model is confined to hot, smoldering fiberglass composites prior to ignition. Experimental fire tests are performed on dry fiberg...

View PDFchevron_right
Post-Fire Properties of Composites Burnt by Cone Calorimetry and Large-Scale Fire Testing
Z. Mathys

2001

This paper presents a study assessing the suitability of the cone calorimeter technique for performing low cost, rapid fire tests on fibre-reinforced polymer (FRP) composite materials to determine their loss in stiffness and strength due to fire. The study involves comparing the thermal environment, ignition mechanisms, fire damage processes, burn-through rates, and post-fire mechanical properties of an FRP composite subjected to an artificial fire inside a cone calorimeter against a large fuel fire. It is found that a higher temperature is required to ignite composites inside a cone calorimeter than in a fuel fire for the same ignition time. The fire damage to the composite caused by cone calorimeter and large fuel fire testing consisted of delamination cracking and char due to combustion of the resin matrix. However, the amount of char and delamination damage was more extensive with the cone calorimeter test for the same ignition time due to the higher temperature required to prom...

View PDFchevron_right
Tensile properties of carbon fibres and carbon fibre–polymer composites in fire
S. Feih

Composites Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing, 2012

The effect of fire on the tensile properties of carbon fibres is experimentally determined to provide new insights into the tensile performance of carbon fibre-polymer composite materials during fire.

View PDFchevron_right

Related topics

  • Materials Science

    • Cited by

    Thermal degradation of epoxy resin/carbon fiber composites: Influence of carbon fiber fraction on the fire reaction properties and on the gaseous species release
    duy dao

    Fire and Materials, 2014

    The thermal degradation of epoxy resin/carbon fiber composites has been performed in ISO 5660 standard cone calorimeter using a piloted ignition. Two kinds of composites that differ by their volume fractions in carbon fiber (56 and 59 vol.%) were tested in this study. The cone calorimeter irradiance level was increased up to 75 kW m À2 to characterize the carbon fiber volume fraction influence on the composite thermal degradation. Thus, main flammability and combustibility parameters were determined and calculated such as mass loss, mass loss rate, ignition time, thermal response parameter, ignition temperature, thermal inertia, and heat of gasification. As a result, all the characteristic parameters for the thermal resistance of composites were decreased when the carbon fiber volume fraction increased. Moreover, the main gaseous products (such as NO, CO, CO 2 , HCN, H 2 O, and lightweight hydrocarbons) emitted as well as the oxygen consumption during the composite thermal decomposition were also quantified simultaneously with a portable gas analyzer and a Fourier transform infrared spectrometer. The main species emission yields calculated from the gas analysis results increased slightly when the carbon fiber volume fraction was increased in the initial sample. The epoxy composite was represented as a sooty material with a significant production of soot particles during the combustion process. Furthermore, heat release rate, total heat release, and effective heat of combustion were calculated by using the oxygen consumption calorimetry technique. The results obtained showed that a small increasing of composite carbon fiber amount induced a sharp decrease of heat release rate and total heat release. Figure 2. Comparison of transient mass loss rates for the epoxy/carbon composites (56 and 59 vol.% CF) exposed to (a) 20 and 60 kW m À2 , (b) 30 and 50 kW m À2 , and (c) 40 and 75 kW m À2 (symbol for 56 vol.% CF composite and line for 59 vol.% CF composite).

    View PDFchevron_right
    Preliminary pyrolysis and combustion study for the hybrid propulsion
    Nicolas Gascoin

    46th AIAA/ASME/SAE/ASEE Joint Propulsion Conference & Exhibit, 2010

    The hybrid propulsion can be of interest for civilian applications such as space tourism or small size launchers (1000 N thrust). The PRISME institute from the University of Orléans is working since 2007 on related activities. PRISME aims at studying numerically and experimentally a hybrid rocket engine and more specifically the chemical reactions involved within the reducer and in the combustion chamber thanks existing code. A complementary approach during the development of both experimental and numerical tools will ensure their high efficiency and reliability. With a time shift, a full scale demonstrator should be designed and assembled in 2011 thanks to the knowledge acquired on reduced scale benches and on the numerical model. The present paper aims at presenting the previous PRISME activities related to solid reducer fuel pyrolysis and combustion of byproducts with oxidizer. Thermodynamic equilibrium approach and detailed kinetic studies (several hundredths of species and several thousandths of reactions) have been conducted on a wide range of reducers and oxidizers depending on the availability of detailed chemical mechanism notably. This work is implemented directly in an existing numerical code which will be extended to a 2-D approach to be suitable for hybrid technology studies. The RESPIRE code to be used as a basis already integrates highly detailed chemistry with adapted calculation of fluid properties to be applied to both fuel pyrolysis and combustion of its by-products with the oxidizer. A large range of physical phenomena aim at being considered in the future: the reducer regression and the related change of phase, the oxidizer flow with the boundary layer, the diffusion flame. By considering the chemistry, it is shown as a result of the preliminary study that the best reducer/oxidizer couple depends on several parameters. The High Density PolyEthylene (HDPE)/H 2 O 2 is the most promising couple (ignition delay of 4 µs, temperature of 3025 K) if liquid O 2 (LOx) is preferred not to be used. For a first step, HDPE/GOx is considered for this work.

    View PDFchevron_right
    Valorization of Industrial Lignin as Biobased Carbon Source in Fire Retardant System for Polyamide 11 Blends
    Stéphane Giraud

    Polymers

    In this study, two different types of industrial lignin (i.e., lignosulphonate lignin (LL) and kraft lignin (DL)) were exploited as charring agents with phosphorus-based flame retardants for polyamide 11 (PA11). The effect of lignins on the thermal stability and fire behavior of PA11 combined with phosphinate additives (namely, aluminum phosphinate (AlP) and zinc phosphinate (ZnP)) has been studied by thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), UL 94 vertical flame spread, and cone calorimetry tests. Various blends of flame retarded PA11 were prepared by melt process using a twin-screw extruder. Thermogravimetric analyses showed that the LL containing ternary blends are able to provide higher thermal stability, as well as a developed char residue. The decomposition of the phosphinates led to the formation of phosphate compounds in the condensed phase, which promotes the formation of a stable char. Flammability tests showed that LL/ZnP ternary blends were able to achieve self-extinction and V-...

    View PDFchevron_right
    Development of Novel Polyamide 11 Multifilaments and Fabric Structures Based on Industrial Lignin and Zinc Phosphinate as Flame Retardants
    Stéphane Giraud

    Molecules

    Biobased lignin represents one of the possible materials for next-generation flame retardant additives due to its sustainability, environmental benefits and comparable efficiency to other flame retardant (FR) additives. In this context, this study presents the development of FR polyamide 11 (PA11) multifilament yarns and fabric structures containing different industrial lignins (i.e., lignosulfonate lignin (LL), and Kraft lignin (KL)) and zinc phosphinate (ZnP). The combination of ZnP and lignin (KL or LL) at different weight ratios were used to prepare flame retarded PA11 blends by melt mixing using a twin-screw extruder. These blends were transformed into continuous multifilament yarns by the melt-spinning process even at a high concentration of additives as 20 wt%. The mechanical test results showed that the combination of KL and ZnP achieved higher strength and filaments showed regularity in structure as compared to the LL and ZnP filaments. Thermogravimetric (TG) analysis showe...

    View PDFchevron_right
    Thermal Measurements on Polymeric Epoxy-Expandable Graphite Material
    Joseph Asante

    International Journal of Polymer Science, 2016

    Combustion measurements, such as heat release rate, critical flux, time-to-ignition, ignition temperature, thermal inertia, and kinematics—activation energy as well as preexponential factor—on epoxy polymer (Prime™20LV) with expandable graphite (EG) inorganic filler of different weight percentage composites, are conducted using the Dual Cone Calorimeter, the thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), and Linseis (Germany) THB100 Transient Hot Bridge thermal conductivity analyser. The results indicate that increasing the amount of EG in polymer composite leads to reduction in the critical flux, the time-to-ignition, the ignition temperature, the thermal inertia, the average thermal conductivity, and the activation energy (from 159.1 ± 2.3 to 145.9 ± 3.1 kJ/mol for neat epoxy to 3 wt.% EG-epoxy) of the composite samples. There is, however, an increase in the heat of gasification with increasing EG content.

    View PDFchevron_right
    580 California St., Suite 400
    San Francisco, CA, 94104
    © 2025 Academia. All rights reserved