Models for Supporting Mobility as a Service (MaaS) Design

Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice, 2019

This overview article proposes a revised approach to improve the urban realm, against the backdrop of new models for delivering transport services as digitalisation, collaborative consumption and autonomous technologies take hold. We propose the concept of modal efficiency illustrated through a conceptual framework situating both existing and emerging modes of transport around spatial and temporal dimensions. This framework helps us evaluate how the push towards smaller and more flexible transport services in questionable settings can have significant and adverse effects on road capacity, increasing congestion and in the longer term impacting urban form. We propose linking urban land use characteristics to travel price and modal efficiency to improve the broader transport system and guide the sustainable development of our cities. Mobility as a service (MaaS) based on shared mobility and modal integration constitutes a major opportunity to deliver on these ideals, if organised appropriately. Widely diverging service delivery models for MaaS are introduced, including commercially-motivated models (which may exacerbate efficiency issues), and systems which incorporate an institutional overlay. We propose consideration of a government-contracted model for MaaS, where road pricing is incorporated as an input into package price, defined by time of day, geography and modal efficiency. In amidst the hype of new mobility technologies and services, a critical assessment of the realm of possibilities can better inform government policy and ensure that digital disruption occurs to our advantage.

Travel Behaviour and Society, 2018

Mobility as a Service (MaaS) is a relatively recent mobility concept, which has the potential to contribute to a more sustainable transport system. The starting point for its success is to acquire a deeper understanding of the key actors' motives, expectations, perceptions and concerns. To this end, this paper applies a mixed-methods approach, using qualitative and quantitative research to collect and analyze data from key MaaS-related stakeholders and end-users. In particular, workshops with stakeholders and focus groups with end-users were conducted in two European metropolitan areas, Budapest in Hungary and Greater Manchester in the United Kingdom. In addition, an on-line questionnaire survey was launched to collect quantitative data from end-users. Stakeholders' and end-users' perspectives on different MaaS-related aspects are collected and analyzed. Our analysis indicates that stakeholders are highly motivated to join a MaaS partnership for receiving better quality demand data and increasing their market shares and revenues. In addition, lack of data and Application Programming Interfaces (APIs) was identified as a significant operational/technical barrier, while the strong reliance of people on their private vehicles was indicated as the strongest social barrier. A qualitative cluster analysis was conducted revealing significant variations in the stakeholders' viewpoints depending on the business domain they represented. The findings of this paper provide useful insights for the decision-making processes of policy makers, local authorities, transport operators and other MaaS actors, helping them to make informed decisions when implementing MaaS schemes in their cities.

2020 Forum on Integrated and Sustainable Transportation Systems (FISTS)

The promise of Mobility-as-a-Service (MaaS) is that it decreases the need to own a car and contributes to a more sustainable transport system. However, MaaS also offers relatively easy access to car-based travel alternatives which may result in substituting public transport trips by car trips. An important question therefore is: which type of traveler is going to adopt MaaS and which impact is this going to have on their mode choices? This paper explores this question by presenting the results of a stated choice experiment conducted in the Netherlands. Travelers are presented with MaaS bundles that vary in accessibility to transport services and price and they respond to a range of questions about bundle adoption, change in transport mode, and willingness to shed one or more cars. The results suggest that if MaaS bundles are given for free to the travelers, this has the potential to change their frequency of mode use. For example, if the MaaS bundel includes unlimited bus, tram and metro (BTM), even travelers who solely use car will then use BTM more. However, realizing this potential is not very likely, because when travelers have to pay for MaaS, adoption rates are rather low, in particular of those who use car the most. In addition, the willingness of car owners to shed their cars is very low, suggesting that currently MaaS is not conceived as a viable alternative for car-ownership. On the other hand, current public travelers seem most interested in MaaS and results indeed as expected suggest that this increases their car use. Overall, the trends reported in this paper adds to a growing insight that MaaS' contribution to sustainability may be smaller than generally believed. I.

Discussion papers, 2020

Transport Reviews, 2019

This paper presents a comprehensive literature review focused on the supply side of mobility services, providing relevant insights at the conceptual, operational, and modelling levels. Definitions are first drawn from the Mobility as a Service paradigm due to its predominance in the literature. This is followed by an assessment of the operational features of a range of mobility services, including carsharing, bikesharing, ridehailing, and demand responsive transit. To conclude the review, the state-of-the-art in modelling approaches for mobility services is reported, at different levels of complexity and integration. Three of the most important findings and arguments from this paper suggest that a high degree of generality exists for operational features of mobility services; that it is essential to make a distinction between Mobility as a Service and a mobility service in isolation; along with the argument that human agency should be carefully considered in modelling efforts, both for user agent and driver agent decisionmaking processes. Finally, key considerations are proposed for the future development of a conceptual framework for modelling the supply side of mobility services, which would have a generic service provider model as its core component.

Transportation Research Part A-policy and Practice, 2020

Future Transportation, 2022

Having been widely acknowledged as enabling access to education, employment, leisure and social activities, transport choices are also the cause of many challenges cities face. Recognising that change is needed, planners and policymakers are considering alternative methods of planning and delivering transport. Mobility as a Service (or MaaS) is one such idea that has gained traction with academics and professionals alike. Hailed as the answer to integrating complex transport systems, MaaS has yet to be implemented at scale in urban transport systems due in part to the lack of an agreed conceptual definition, the top-down approach to implementing what is meant to be a more personalised method of accessing transport, and the lack of local promoters (in comparison to global corporations and lobbyists). This article reflects on the current barriers to defining MaaS, considers how a novel public engagement approach could be used to create local definitions that support citizen engagement...

Demand for Emerging Transportation Systems, 2020

Chapter 3 Mobility on demand (MOD) and mobility as a service (MaaS): early understanding of shared mobility impacts and public transit partnerships 1 INTRODUCTION For as long as there have been cities, urban mobility has been at its core. As cities and technologies have evolved, societies have moved from wheeled carts and horses to horseless carriages and modern cars. Today, this evolution continues. Technology is changing the way we move, which is in turn reshaping cities and society. Shared and on-demand mobility represent one of the notable shifts in transportation in the 21st century. Some suggest revolutionary changes could lead to the end of the automobile due to a number of forces, including automated vehicle technology and innovative service models; however, this seems unlikely. Rather, these advances, coupled with public policy, suggest we could reimagine how we use and interact with vehicles, including private-vehicle ownership. The integration of transportation modes, real-time information, and instant communication and dispatch all possible with the click of a mouse or a smartphone app is redefining "auto mobility." Rather than rendering cars obsolete, the convergence of on-demand shared travel, automation, and electric-drive technology could change our relationship with the automobile, making vehicles more cost-effective, efficient, and convenient. Demographic shifts, advancements in technology, congestion, the commodification of transportation services, and heightened awareness about the environment and climate change are contributing to the growth of shared on-demand mobility. In recent years, mobility on demand (MOD) where consumers access mobility, goods, and services on-demand has grown due to advancements in technology; changing consumer preferences (mobility and retail consumption); and a myriad of economic, environmental, and social factors. Key industry benchmarks exemplify developments in this emerging sector:  Carsharing-As of January 2017, there were 21 active carsharing programs in the United States (U.S.) with over 1.4 million members sharing more than 17,000 vehicles (Shaheen et al., 2018).  Bikesharing-As of the end of 2017, the U.S. had more than 200 bike-sharing operators with more than 100,000 bicycles (Russell Meddin, unpublished data). More than 84 million trips were taken on micromobility (bikesharing and scooter sharing) in the U.S. in 2018 (NACTO, 2018).  Transportation network companies (TNCs, also known as ridesourcing and ridehailing)-As of the end of 2018, Lyft reported 18.6 million active riders and more than 1.1 million drivers operating in more than 300 markets throughout the U.S. and Canada (based on SEC filings). Uber operated in 63 countries serving an estimated 82 million users as of December 2018 (based on SEC filings).  Pooling-As of December 2017, uberPOOL and Lyft Shared rides, a pooled version of forhire TNCs, were available in 14 and 16 U.S. markets, respectively (Paige Tsai, personal communication; Peter Gigante, personal communication). Innovative carpool apps, such as Scoop and Waze Carpool, also are enabling on-demand higher occupancy commuting. The growth of on-demand mobility and courier services is contributing to private-sector interest. Acquisitions, investments, partnerships, internal development of technologies, and mobility

Future Transportation

Mobility as a Service (MaaS) is an innovative mobility service that aims to redesign the future of urban mobility by integrating multi-modal transportation and app-based technologies to enable seamless urban mobility. While MaaS pilot demonstrations and schemes implementation have taken place in different cities at a global level, and relevant studies focus on the MaaS barriers and users’ characteristics, the planning process for implementing MaaS is rarely presented. This paper summarizes the services to be integrated into the MaaS Athens’ demo site in Greece and describes the planning process that was followed to showcase the demo. The demo site is located within the urban area of Athens, including a public transport operator, a bike-sharing service, a taxi operator, and a municipality public transport operator. The demonstration runs developments in a real corridor that has the potential to prepare the MaaS eco-system deployment and market uptake. Three travel cases are planned: ...

As more people move to cities and urban areas are growing, demand for urban transport increases. This leads not only to pressure on sustainability and climate goals, but also on the attractiveness and liveability of urban areas. Thus, it is necessary to decrease the use of private cars and create a modal shift towards more sustainable modes of transport, such as walking, cycling and public transport. In this context, the introduction of Integrated Mobility Services, IMS (or Mobility as a Service, MaaS), is more and more often brought forward as one key driver to enable such a shift. As the term suggests, integrated mobility services integrate a range of mobility services (e.g. public transport, car sharing, bike sharing, taxi etc.) and provides one-stop access to all services through a common interface, hence creating a seamless customer experience. If different transportation modes are combined in a manner that enables multimodal travel and increases vehicle utilisation rates and vehicle occupancy, such services could help cities deal with problems such as urban congestion, transport-related pollution and accessibility. This paper reviews the literature on Integrated Mobility Services with a focus on what previous research says about drivers and barriers for implementing IMS. To structure the results, the review is guided by the analytical framework of the IRIMS project. This framework draws upon institutional theory, which defines institutions broadly; ranging from societal regulations, planning processes, and consumption patterns, to individual habits and practices. Furthermore, these institutions are found at various levels: the macro level includes the national level where national visions, action plans and goals, as well as legislation, subsidies and taxes are generated. The meso level includes a variety of institutions; public institutions on the regional and local levels, private organisations, public/private hybrids and not-for-profit civil society actors. Finally the micro level includes the individual in her capacity as citizen, as taxpayer, but primarily as customer and user of IMS. At all three levels (macro, meso and micro), barriers and enablers can be both formal (e.g. legislation) and informal (e.g. norms). On a macro level, government has an important role in relation to integrated mobility services both related to creating preconditions for implementing IMS, and to protecting public interest. The subsidization of tickets for public transport, and the implications of this for the role of Public transport within IMS seems to be a key issue, and a related question concerns the boundaries between state subsidized mobility services and commercially viable services, and how these can be combined in IMS solutions. The government could also use taxation policy, financing programs and regulations concerning data availability and standardization as measures to create an enabling environment for IMS. The discourse surrounding IMS at societal level is a strong driver for action, with IMS being presented as a panacea able to solve problems ranging from urban congestion and climate impact of transportation to economic growth and social inclusion. On the meso level, regional and local authorities have an important role to create an enabling environment for IMS regarding the physical infrastructure for public transport, bike infrastructure, carsharing services etc. On the informal side, a major driving force for getting IMS up and running is the perceived business opportunity in the nascent IMS market, not least for private actors. Several actors need to collaborate for a scalable integrated mobility service to materialize. This can be organised in a “business ecosystem”, where multiple actors add services from their core businesses into a whole that constitutes the integrated mobility service offering. If an offer of integrated mobility services is to emerge within a reasonable timeframe, one actor within the business ecosystem needs to take the lead, but in order for the system to survive, all required actors in the ecosystem must benefit from its existence. An interesting dimension relates to what different actors in the IMS ecosystem perceive is their role in relation to new mobility services, and the implications of different actors taking the lead. It is yet unclear who will/should take the role as service integrator. The question of different actors finding their role in the IMS ecosystem is made even more interesting by the fact that not only automotive OEMs and public transport operators are looking into ways of innovating using IMS, but also telecom, retail and media organisations. The extent to which these different actors, from different backgrounds, complement or compete with each other is a question yet to be settled. Public transport is generally seen as a backbone in integrated mobility services, and many public transport operators wish to take the lead in the development of new services, which they see as a complement to their existing services. On the other hand, private third party organisations could be seen as better suited to create service offerings that cater to other customer groups than the traditional public transport customers. The decision to sell public transport tickets through a commercial IMS integrator lies with the public transport operators, which could be a substantial barrier to IMS implementation with commercial IMS integrators. Integrated mobility services require a mobility platform that combines the different modes into one integrated service, and a major enabler for IMS is hence the rapid development within ICT. But although a number of such platforms are now available at the market, only a few of these have been tested in other contexts than smaller pilots. At the micro level, several trends are supportive of IMS. Increased densification of city centres creates incentives for citizens to consider alternatives to own their own car. Changes in the cost of owning a car could also have a large impact on the demand for IMS. Furthermore, the growth of the “sharing economy” means services such as IMS are gaining more acceptance among consumers. Research on IMS point to several kinds of potential customer benefits, such as personalised service, ease of transaction, ease of payment, dynamic journey management, and journey planning based on personal preferences. The primary customer base is likely to be “flexi travellers” who can often travel by public transport but also need other means of transport on a regular basis. This customer base will experience a well-functioning integrated mobility service as a very price-worthy alternative to private car ownership, and thus have a high willingness to pay for it. However, research within behavioural economics shows that customers generally tend to overvalue current benefits and undervalue potential gains, resulting in a status quo bias, which means attracting enough customers to a new type of mobility service will be a challenge.